Main points
* A report structure is used to report what people say or think.
* You use the present tense of the reporting verb when you are reporting something that someone says or thinks at the time you are speaking.
* You often use past tenses in report structures because a reported clause usually reports something that was said or believed in the past.
1 You use a report structure to report what people say or think. A report structure consists of two parts. One part is the reporting clause, which contains the reporting verb.
I told him nothing was going to happen to me.
I agreed that he should do it.
The other part is the reported clause.
He felt that he had to do something.
Henry said he wanted to go home.
See Units 75-77 for more information on report structures.
2 For the verb in the reporting clause, you choose a tense that is appropriate at the time you are speaking.
Because reports are usually about something that was said or believed in the past, both the reporting verb and the verb in the reported clause are often in a past tense.
Mrs Kaur announced that the lecture had begun.
At the time we thought that he was mad.
3 Although you normally use past tenses in reports about the past, you can use a present tense in the reported clause if what you are saying is important in the present, for example:
* because you want to emphasize that it is still true
Did you tell him that this young woman is looking for a job?
* because you want to give advice or a warning, or make a suggestion for the present or future
I told you they have this class on Friday afternoon, so you should have come a bit earlier.
4 You use a present tense for the reporting verb when you are reporting:
* what someone says or thinks at the time you are speaking
She says she wants to see you this afternoon.
I think there's something wrong.
Note that, as in the last example, it may be your own thoughts that you are reporting.
* what someone often says
He says that no one understands him.
* what someone has said in the past, if what they said is still true
My doctor says it's nothing to worry about.
5 If you are predicting what people will say or think, you use a future tense for the reporting verb.
No doubt he will claim that his car broke down.
They will think we are making a fuss.
6 You very rarely try to report the exact words of a statement. You usually give a summary of what was said. For example, John might say:
`I tried to phone you about six times yesterday. I let the phone ring for ages but there was no answer. I couldn't get through at all so I finally gave up.'
You would probably report this as:
John said he tried to phone several times yesterday, but he couldn't get through.
7 When you are telling a story of your own, or one that you have heard from someone else, direct speech simply becomes part of the narrative.
In this extract a taxi driver picks up a passenger:
`What part of London are you headed for?' I asked him.
`I'm going to Epsom for the races. It's Derby day today.'
`So it is,' I said. `I wish I were going with you. I love betting on horses.'
You might report this as part of the narrative without reporting verbs:
My passenger was going to Epsom to see the Derby, and I wanted to go with him.
Friday, September 25, 2009
Unit 75 Reported questions
Main points
* You use reported questions to talk about a question that someone else has asked.
* In reported questions, the subject of the question comes before the verb.
* You use `if' or `whether' in reported `yes/no'-questions.
1 When you are talking about a question that someone has asked, you use a reported question.
She asked me why I was so late.
He wanted to know where I was going.
I demanded to know what was going on.
I asked her if I could help her.
I asked her whether there was anything wrong.
In formal and written English, `enquire' (also spelled `inquire') is often used instead of `ask'.
Wilkie had enquired if she did a lot of acting.
He inquired whether he could see her.
2 When you are reporting a question, the verb in the reported clause is often in a past tense. This is because you are often talking about the past when you are reporting someone else's words.
She asked me why I was so late.
Pat asked him if she had hurt him.
However, you can use a present or future tense if the question you are reporting relates to the present or future.
Mark was asking if you're enjoying your new job.
They asked if you'll be there tomorrow night.
3 In reported questions, the subject of the question comes before the verb, just as it does in affirmative sentences.
She asked me why I was late.
I asked what he was doing.
4 You do not normally use the auxiliary `do' in reported questions.
She asked him if his parents spoke French.
They asked us what we thought.
The auxiliary `do' can be used in reported questions, but only for emphasis, or to make a contrast with something that has already been said. It is not put before the subject as in direct questions.
She asked me whether I really did mean it.
I told him I didn't like classical music. He asked me what kind of music I did like.
5 You use `if' or `whether' to introduce reported `yes/no'-questions.
I asked him if he was on holiday.
She hugged him and asked him whether he was all right.
I asked him whether he was single.
`Whether' is used especially when there is a choice of possibilities.
I was asked whether I wanted to stay at a hotel or at his home.
They asked whether Tim was or was not in the team.
I asked him whether he loved me or not.
Note that you can put `or not' immediately after `whether', but not immediately after `if'.
The police didn't ask whether or not they were in.
See Units 74, 76, and 77 for more information on reporting.
* You use reported questions to talk about a question that someone else has asked.
* In reported questions, the subject of the question comes before the verb.
* You use `if' or `whether' in reported `yes/no'-questions.
1 When you are talking about a question that someone has asked, you use a reported question.
She asked me why I was so late.
He wanted to know where I was going.
I demanded to know what was going on.
I asked her if I could help her.
I asked her whether there was anything wrong.
In formal and written English, `enquire' (also spelled `inquire') is often used instead of `ask'.
Wilkie had enquired if she did a lot of acting.
He inquired whether he could see her.
2 When you are reporting a question, the verb in the reported clause is often in a past tense. This is because you are often talking about the past when you are reporting someone else's words.
She asked me why I was so late.
Pat asked him if she had hurt him.
However, you can use a present or future tense if the question you are reporting relates to the present or future.
Mark was asking if you're enjoying your new job.
They asked if you'll be there tomorrow night.
3 In reported questions, the subject of the question comes before the verb, just as it does in affirmative sentences.
She asked me why I was late.
I asked what he was doing.
4 You do not normally use the auxiliary `do' in reported questions.
She asked him if his parents spoke French.
They asked us what we thought.
The auxiliary `do' can be used in reported questions, but only for emphasis, or to make a contrast with something that has already been said. It is not put before the subject as in direct questions.
She asked me whether I really did mean it.
I told him I didn't like classical music. He asked me what kind of music I did like.
5 You use `if' or `whether' to introduce reported `yes/no'-questions.
I asked him if he was on holiday.
She hugged him and asked him whether he was all right.
I asked him whether he was single.
`Whether' is used especially when there is a choice of possibilities.
I was asked whether I wanted to stay at a hotel or at his home.
They asked whether Tim was or was not in the team.
I asked him whether he loved me or not.
Note that you can put `or not' immediately after `whether', but not immediately after `if'.
The police didn't ask whether or not they were in.
See Units 74, 76, and 77 for more information on reporting.
Unit 76 Reporting: `that'-clauses
Main points
* You usually use your own words to report what someone said, rather than repeating their exact words.
* Report structures contain a reporting clause first, then a reported clause.
* When you are reporting a statement, the reported clause is a `that'-clause.
* You must mention the hearer with `tell'. You need not mention the hearer with `say'.
1 When you are reporting what someone said, you do not usually repeat their exact words, you use your own words in a report structure.
Jim said he wanted to go home.
Jim's actual words might have been `It's time I went' or `I must go'.
Report structures contain two clauses. The first clause is the reporting clause, which contains a reporting verb such as `say', `tell', or `ask'.
She said that she'd been to Belgium.
The man in the shop told me how much it would cost.
You often use verbs that refer to people's thoughts and feelings to report what people say. If someone says `I am wrong', you might report this as `He felt that he was wrong'. See Unit 77 for more information.
2 The second clause in a report structure is the reported clause, which contains the information that you are reporting. The reported clause can be a `that'-clause, a `to'-infinitive clause, an `if'-clause, or a `wh'-word clause.
She said that she didn't know.
He told me to do it.
Mary asked if she could stay with us.
She asked where he'd gone.
3 If you want to report a statement, you use a `that'-clause after a verb such as `say'.
admit, agree, answer, argue, claim, complain, decide, deny, explain, insist, mention, promise, reply, say, warn
He said that he would go.
I replied that I had not read it yet.
You often omit `that' from the `that'-clause, but not after `answer', `argue', `explain', or `reply'.
They said I had to see a doctor first.
He answered that the price would be three pounds.
You often mention the hearer after the preposition `to' with the following verbs.
admitcomplainmentionsuggest
announceexplainsay
He complained to me that you were rude.
4 `Tell' and some other reporting verbs are also used with a `that'-clause, but with these verbs you have to mention the hearer as the object of the verb.
convincenotifyreassuretell
informpersuaderemind
He told me that he was a farmer.
I informed her that I could not come.
The word `that' is often omitted after `tell'.
I told them you were at the dentist.
You can also mention the hearer as the object of the verb with `promise' and `warn'.
I promised her that I wouldn't be late.
5 Note the differences between `say' and `tell'. You cannot use `say' with the hearer as the object of the verb. You cannot say `I said them you had gone'. You cannot use `tell' without the hearer as the object of the verb. You cannot say `I told that you had gone'. You cannot use `tell' with `to' and the hearer. You cannot say `I told to them you had gone'.
6 The reporting verbs that have the hearer as object, such as `tell', can be used in the passive.
She was told that there were no tickets left.
Most reporting verbs that do not need the hearer as object, such as `say', can be used in the passive with impersonal `it' as subject, but not `answer', `complain', `insist', `promise', `reply', or `warn'.
It was said that the money had been stolen.
See also Units 74 and 77.
* You usually use your own words to report what someone said, rather than repeating their exact words.
* Report structures contain a reporting clause first, then a reported clause.
* When you are reporting a statement, the reported clause is a `that'-clause.
* You must mention the hearer with `tell'. You need not mention the hearer with `say'.
1 When you are reporting what someone said, you do not usually repeat their exact words, you use your own words in a report structure.
Jim said he wanted to go home.
Jim's actual words might have been `It's time I went' or `I must go'.
Report structures contain two clauses. The first clause is the reporting clause, which contains a reporting verb such as `say', `tell', or `ask'.
She said that she'd been to Belgium.
The man in the shop told me how much it would cost.
You often use verbs that refer to people's thoughts and feelings to report what people say. If someone says `I am wrong', you might report this as `He felt that he was wrong'. See Unit 77 for more information.
2 The second clause in a report structure is the reported clause, which contains the information that you are reporting. The reported clause can be a `that'-clause, a `to'-infinitive clause, an `if'-clause, or a `wh'-word clause.
She said that she didn't know.
He told me to do it.
Mary asked if she could stay with us.
She asked where he'd gone.
3 If you want to report a statement, you use a `that'-clause after a verb such as `say'.
admit, agree, answer, argue, claim, complain, decide, deny, explain, insist, mention, promise, reply, say, warn
He said that he would go.
I replied that I had not read it yet.
You often omit `that' from the `that'-clause, but not after `answer', `argue', `explain', or `reply'.
They said I had to see a doctor first.
He answered that the price would be three pounds.
You often mention the hearer after the preposition `to' with the following verbs.
admitcomplainmentionsuggest
announceexplainsay
He complained to me that you were rude.
4 `Tell' and some other reporting verbs are also used with a `that'-clause, but with these verbs you have to mention the hearer as the object of the verb.
convincenotifyreassuretell
informpersuaderemind
He told me that he was a farmer.
I informed her that I could not come.
The word `that' is often omitted after `tell'.
I told them you were at the dentist.
You can also mention the hearer as the object of the verb with `promise' and `warn'.
I promised her that I wouldn't be late.
5 Note the differences between `say' and `tell'. You cannot use `say' with the hearer as the object of the verb. You cannot say `I said them you had gone'. You cannot use `tell' without the hearer as the object of the verb. You cannot say `I told that you had gone'. You cannot use `tell' with `to' and the hearer. You cannot say `I told to them you had gone'.
6 The reporting verbs that have the hearer as object, such as `tell', can be used in the passive.
She was told that there were no tickets left.
Most reporting verbs that do not need the hearer as object, such as `say', can be used in the passive with impersonal `it' as subject, but not `answer', `complain', `insist', `promise', `reply', or `warn'.
It was said that the money had been stolen.
See also Units 74 and 77.
Unit 77 Other report structures
Main points
* When reporting an order, a request, or a piece of advice, the reported clause is a `to'-infinitive clause, used after an object.
* When reporting a question, the reported clause is an `if'-clause or a `wh'-word clause.
* Many reporting verbs refer to people's thoughts and feelings.
1 If you want to report an order, a request, or a piece of advice, you use a `to'-infinitive clause after a reporting verb such as `tell', `ask', or `advise'. You mention the hearer as the object of the verb, before the `to'-infinitive clause.
advise, ask, beg, command, forbid, instruct, invite, order, persuade, remind, tell, warn
Johnson told her to wake him up.
He ordered me to fetch the books.
He asked her to marry him.
He advised me to buy it.
If the order, request, or advice is negative, you put `not' before the `to'-infinitive.
He had ordered his officers not to use weapons.
She asked her staff not to discuss it publicly.
Doctors advised him not to play for three weeks.
If the subject of the `to'-infinitive clause is the same as the subject of the main verb, you can use `ask' or `beg' to report a request without mentioning the hearer.
I asked to see the manager.
Both men begged not to be named.
2 If you want to report a question, you use a verb such as `ask' followed by an `if'-clause or a `wh'-word clause.
I asked if I could stay with them.
They wondered whether the time was right.
He asked me where I was going.
She inquired how Ibrahim was getting on.
Note that in reported questions, the subject of the question comes before the verb, just as it does in affirmative sentences.
See Unit 75.
3 Many reporting verbs refer to people's thoughts and feelings but are often used to report what people say. For example, if someone says `I must go', you might report this as `She wanted to go' or `She thought she should go'.
Some of these verbs are followed by:
* a `that'-clause
accept, believe, consider, fear, feel, guess, imagine, know, suppose, think, understand, worry
We both knew that the town was cut off.
I had always believed that I would see him again.
* a `to'-infinitive clause
intendplanwant
He doesn't want to get up.
* a `that'-clause or a `to'-infinitive clause
agree, decide, expect, forget, hope, prefer, regret, remember, wish
She hoped she wasn't going to cry.
They are in love and wish to marry.
`Expect' and `prefer' can also be followed by an object and a `to'-infinitive.
I'm sure she doesn't expect you to take the plane.
The headmaster prefers them to act plays they have written themselves.
4 A speaker's exact words are more often used in stories than in ordinary conversation.
`I knew I'd seen you,' I said.
`Only one,' replied the Englishman.
`Let's go and have a look at the swimming pool,' she suggested.
In ordinary conversation, it is normal to use a report structure rather than to repeat someone's exact words.
* When reporting an order, a request, or a piece of advice, the reported clause is a `to'-infinitive clause, used after an object.
* When reporting a question, the reported clause is an `if'-clause or a `wh'-word clause.
* Many reporting verbs refer to people's thoughts and feelings.
1 If you want to report an order, a request, or a piece of advice, you use a `to'-infinitive clause after a reporting verb such as `tell', `ask', or `advise'. You mention the hearer as the object of the verb, before the `to'-infinitive clause.
advise, ask, beg, command, forbid, instruct, invite, order, persuade, remind, tell, warn
Johnson told her to wake him up.
He ordered me to fetch the books.
He asked her to marry him.
He advised me to buy it.
If the order, request, or advice is negative, you put `not' before the `to'-infinitive.
He had ordered his officers not to use weapons.
She asked her staff not to discuss it publicly.
Doctors advised him not to play for three weeks.
If the subject of the `to'-infinitive clause is the same as the subject of the main verb, you can use `ask' or `beg' to report a request without mentioning the hearer.
I asked to see the manager.
Both men begged not to be named.
2 If you want to report a question, you use a verb such as `ask' followed by an `if'-clause or a `wh'-word clause.
I asked if I could stay with them.
They wondered whether the time was right.
He asked me where I was going.
She inquired how Ibrahim was getting on.
Note that in reported questions, the subject of the question comes before the verb, just as it does in affirmative sentences.
See Unit 75.
3 Many reporting verbs refer to people's thoughts and feelings but are often used to report what people say. For example, if someone says `I must go', you might report this as `She wanted to go' or `She thought she should go'.
Some of these verbs are followed by:
* a `that'-clause
accept, believe, consider, fear, feel, guess, imagine, know, suppose, think, understand, worry
We both knew that the town was cut off.
I had always believed that I would see him again.
* a `to'-infinitive clause
intendplanwant
He doesn't want to get up.
* a `that'-clause or a `to'-infinitive clause
agree, decide, expect, forget, hope, prefer, regret, remember, wish
She hoped she wasn't going to cry.
They are in love and wish to marry.
`Expect' and `prefer' can also be followed by an object and a `to'-infinitive.
I'm sure she doesn't expect you to take the plane.
The headmaster prefers them to act plays they have written themselves.
4 A speaker's exact words are more often used in stories than in ordinary conversation.
`I knew I'd seen you,' I said.
`Only one,' replied the Englishman.
`Let's go and have a look at the swimming pool,' she suggested.
In ordinary conversation, it is normal to use a report structure rather than to repeat someone's exact words.
Unit 78 The passive voice
Main points
* You use the passive voice to focus on the person or thing affected by an action.
* You form the passive by using a form of `be' and a past participle.
* Only verbs that have an object can have a passive form. With verbs that can have two objects, either object can be the subject of the passive.
1 When you want to talk about the person or thing that performs an action, you use the active voice.
Mr Smith locks the gate at 6 o'clock every night.
The storm destroyed dozens of trees.
When you want to focus on the person or thing that is affected by an action, rather than the person or thing that performs the action, you use the passive voice.
The gate is locked at 6 o'clock every night.
Dozens of trees were destroyed.
2 The passive is formed with a form of the auxiliary `be', followed by the past participle of a main verb.
Two new stores were opened this year.
The room had been cleaned.
Continuous passive tenses are formed with a form of the auxiliary `be' followed by `being' and the past participle of a main verb.
Jobs are still being lost.
It was being done without his knowledge.
3 After modals you use the base form `be' followed by the past participle of a main verb.
What can be done?
We won't be beaten.
When you are talking about the past, you use a modal with `have been' followed by the past participle of a main verb.
He may have been given the car.
He couldn't have been told by Jimmy.
4 You form passive infinitives by using `to be' or `to have been' followed by the past participle of a main verb.
He wanted to be forgiven.
The car was reported to have been stolen.
5 In informal English, `get' is sometimes used instead of `be' to form the passive.
Our car gets cleaned every weekend.
He got killed in a plane crash.
6 When you use the passive, you often do not mention the person or thing that performs the action at all. This may be because you do not know or do not want to say who it is, or because it does not matter.
Her boyfriend was shot in the chest.
Your application was rejected.
Such items should be carefully packed in tea chests.
7 If you are using the passive and you do want to mention the person or thing that performs the action, you use `by'.
He had been poisoned by his girlfriend.
He was brought up by an aunt.
You use `with' to talk about something that is used to perform the action.
A circle was drawn in the dirt with a stick.
He was killed with a knife.
8 Only verbs that usually have an object can have a passive form. You can say `people spend money' or `money is spent'.
An enormous amount of money is spent on beer.
The food is sold at local markets.
With verbs which can have two objects, you can form two different passive sentences. For example, you can say `The secretary was given the key' or `The key was given to the secretary'.
They were offered a new flat.
The books will be sent to you.
See Unit 52 for more information on verbs that can have two objects.
* You use the passive voice to focus on the person or thing affected by an action.
* You form the passive by using a form of `be' and a past participle.
* Only verbs that have an object can have a passive form. With verbs that can have two objects, either object can be the subject of the passive.
1 When you want to talk about the person or thing that performs an action, you use the active voice.
Mr Smith locks the gate at 6 o'clock every night.
The storm destroyed dozens of trees.
When you want to focus on the person or thing that is affected by an action, rather than the person or thing that performs the action, you use the passive voice.
The gate is locked at 6 o'clock every night.
Dozens of trees were destroyed.
2 The passive is formed with a form of the auxiliary `be', followed by the past participle of a main verb.
Two new stores were opened this year.
The room had been cleaned.
Continuous passive tenses are formed with a form of the auxiliary `be' followed by `being' and the past participle of a main verb.
Jobs are still being lost.
It was being done without his knowledge.
3 After modals you use the base form `be' followed by the past participle of a main verb.
What can be done?
We won't be beaten.
When you are talking about the past, you use a modal with `have been' followed by the past participle of a main verb.
He may have been given the car.
He couldn't have been told by Jimmy.
4 You form passive infinitives by using `to be' or `to have been' followed by the past participle of a main verb.
He wanted to be forgiven.
The car was reported to have been stolen.
5 In informal English, `get' is sometimes used instead of `be' to form the passive.
Our car gets cleaned every weekend.
He got killed in a plane crash.
6 When you use the passive, you often do not mention the person or thing that performs the action at all. This may be because you do not know or do not want to say who it is, or because it does not matter.
Her boyfriend was shot in the chest.
Your application was rejected.
Such items should be carefully packed in tea chests.
7 If you are using the passive and you do want to mention the person or thing that performs the action, you use `by'.
He had been poisoned by his girlfriend.
He was brought up by an aunt.
You use `with' to talk about something that is used to perform the action.
A circle was drawn in the dirt with a stick.
He was killed with a knife.
8 Only verbs that usually have an object can have a passive form. You can say `people spend money' or `money is spent'.
An enormous amount of money is spent on beer.
The food is sold at local markets.
With verbs which can have two objects, you can form two different passive sentences. For example, you can say `The secretary was given the key' or `The key was given to the secretary'.
They were offered a new flat.
The books will be sent to you.
See Unit 52 for more information on verbs that can have two objects.
Unit 79 Introduction to modals
Main points
* The modal verbs are: `can', `could', `may', `might', `must', `ought', `shall', `should', `will', and `would'
* Modals are always the first word in a verb group.
* All modals except for `ought' are followed by the base form of a verb.
* `Ought' is followed by a `to'-infinitive.
* Modals have only one form.
* Modals can be used for various different purposes. These are explained in Units 80-91.
1 Modals are always the first word in a verb group. All modals except for `ought' are followed by the base form of a verb.
I must leave fairly soon.
I think it will look rather nice.
Things might have been so different.
People may be watching.
2 `Ought' is always followed by a `to'-infinitive.
She ought to go straight back to England.
Sam ought to have realized how dangerous it was.
You ought to be doing this.
3 Modals have only one form. There is no `-s' form for the third person singular of the present tense, and there are no `-ing' or `-ed' forms.
There's nothing I can do about it.
I'm sure he can do it.
4 Modals do not normally indicate the time when something happens. There are, however, a few exceptions.
`Shall' and `will' often indicate a future event or situation.
I shall do what you suggested.
He will not return for many hours.
`Could' is used as the past form of `can' to express ability. `Would' is used as the past form of `will' to express the future.
When I was young, I could run for miles.
He remembered that he would see his mother the next day.
5 In spoken English and informal written English, `shall' and `will' are shortened to `-'ll', and `would' to `-'d', and added to a pronoun.
I'll see you tomorrow.
I hope you'll agree.
Posy said she'd love to stay.
`Shall', `will', and `would' are never shortened if they come at the end of a sentence.
Paul said he would come, and I hope he will.
In spoken English, you can also add `-'ll' and `-'d' to nouns.
My car'll be outside.
The headmaster'd be furious.
WARNING: Remember that `-d' is also the short form of the auxiliary `had'.
I'd heard it many times.
* The modal verbs are: `can', `could', `may', `might', `must', `ought', `shall', `should', `will', and `would'
* Modals are always the first word in a verb group.
* All modals except for `ought' are followed by the base form of a verb.
* `Ought' is followed by a `to'-infinitive.
* Modals have only one form.
* Modals can be used for various different purposes. These are explained in Units 80-91.
1 Modals are always the first word in a verb group. All modals except for `ought' are followed by the base form of a verb.
I must leave fairly soon.
I think it will look rather nice.
Things might have been so different.
People may be watching.
2 `Ought' is always followed by a `to'-infinitive.
She ought to go straight back to England.
Sam ought to have realized how dangerous it was.
You ought to be doing this.
3 Modals have only one form. There is no `-s' form for the third person singular of the present tense, and there are no `-ing' or `-ed' forms.
There's nothing I can do about it.
I'm sure he can do it.
4 Modals do not normally indicate the time when something happens. There are, however, a few exceptions.
`Shall' and `will' often indicate a future event or situation.
I shall do what you suggested.
He will not return for many hours.
`Could' is used as the past form of `can' to express ability. `Would' is used as the past form of `will' to express the future.
When I was young, I could run for miles.
He remembered that he would see his mother the next day.
5 In spoken English and informal written English, `shall' and `will' are shortened to `-'ll', and `would' to `-'d', and added to a pronoun.
I'll see you tomorrow.
I hope you'll agree.
Posy said she'd love to stay.
`Shall', `will', and `would' are never shortened if they come at the end of a sentence.
Paul said he would come, and I hope he will.
In spoken English, you can also add `-'ll' and `-'d' to nouns.
My car'll be outside.
The headmaster'd be furious.
WARNING: Remember that `-d' is also the short form of the auxiliary `had'.
I'd heard it many times.
Unit 80 Modals * negation, questions
Main points
* You use negative words with modals to make negative clauses.
* Modals go in front of the subject in questions.
* You never use two modals together.
1 To make a clause negative, you put a negative word immediately after the modal.
You must not worry.
I can never remember his name.
He ought not to have done that.
`Can not' is always written as one word, `cannot'.
I cannot go back.
However, if `can' is followed by `not only', `can' and `not' are not joined.
We can not only book your flight for you, but also advise you about hotels.
2 In spoken English and informal written English, `not' is often shortened to `-n't' and added to the modal. The following modals are often shortened in this way:
could not* couldn't
should not* shouldn't
must not* mustn't
would not* wouldn't
We couldn't leave the farm.
You mustn't talk about Ron like that.
Note the following irregular short forms:
shall not* shan't
will not* won't
cannot* can't
I shan't let you go.
Won't you change your mind?
We can't stop now.
`Might not' and `ought not' are sometimes shortened to `mightn't' and `oughtn't'.
Note that `may not' is very rarely shortened to `mayn't' in modern English.
3 To make a question, you put the modal in front of the subject.
Could you give me an example?
Will you be coming in later?
Shall I shut the door?
Modals are also used in question tags.
See Units 7 and 8 for more information.
4 You never use two modals together. For example, you cannot say `He will can come'. Instead you can say `He will be able to come'.
I shall have to go.
Your husband might have to give up work.
5 Instead of using modals, you can often use other verbs and expressions to make requests, offers, or suggestions, to express wishes or intentions, or to show that you are being polite.
For example, `be able to' is used instead of `can', `be likely to' is used instead of `might', and `have to' is used instead of `must'.
All members are able to claim expenses.
I think that we are likely to see more of this.
These expressions are also used after modals.
I really thought I wouldn't be able to visit you this week.
6 `Dare' and `need' sometimes behave like modals.
See Unit 72 for information on `dare' and Units 71 and 90 for information on `need'.
* You use negative words with modals to make negative clauses.
* Modals go in front of the subject in questions.
* You never use two modals together.
1 To make a clause negative, you put a negative word immediately after the modal.
You must not worry.
I can never remember his name.
He ought not to have done that.
`Can not' is always written as one word, `cannot'.
I cannot go back.
However, if `can' is followed by `not only', `can' and `not' are not joined.
We can not only book your flight for you, but also advise you about hotels.
2 In spoken English and informal written English, `not' is often shortened to `-n't' and added to the modal. The following modals are often shortened in this way:
could not* couldn't
should not* shouldn't
must not* mustn't
would not* wouldn't
We couldn't leave the farm.
You mustn't talk about Ron like that.
Note the following irregular short forms:
shall not* shan't
will not* won't
cannot* can't
I shan't let you go.
Won't you change your mind?
We can't stop now.
`Might not' and `ought not' are sometimes shortened to `mightn't' and `oughtn't'.
Note that `may not' is very rarely shortened to `mayn't' in modern English.
3 To make a question, you put the modal in front of the subject.
Could you give me an example?
Will you be coming in later?
Shall I shut the door?
Modals are also used in question tags.
See Units 7 and 8 for more information.
4 You never use two modals together. For example, you cannot say `He will can come'. Instead you can say `He will be able to come'.
I shall have to go.
Your husband might have to give up work.
5 Instead of using modals, you can often use other verbs and expressions to make requests, offers, or suggestions, to express wishes or intentions, or to show that you are being polite.
For example, `be able to' is used instead of `can', `be likely to' is used instead of `might', and `have to' is used instead of `must'.
All members are able to claim expenses.
I think that we are likely to see more of this.
These expressions are also used after modals.
I really thought I wouldn't be able to visit you this week.
6 `Dare' and `need' sometimes behave like modals.
See Unit 72 for information on `dare' and Units 71 and 90 for information on `need'.
Unit 81 Possibility
Main points
* You use `can' to say that something is possible.
* You use `could',`might', and `may' to indicate that you are not certain whether something is possible, but you think it is.
1 When you want to say that something is possible, you use `can'.
Cooking can be a real pleasure.
In some cases this can cause difficulty.
You use `cannot' or `can't' to say that something is not possible.
This cannot be the answer.
You can't be serious.
2 When you want to indicate that you are not certain whether something is possible, but you think it is, you use `could', `might', or `may'. There is no important difference in meaning between these modals, but `may' is slightly more formal.
That could be one reason.
He might come.
They may help us.
You can also use `might not' or `may not' in this way.
He might not be in England at all.
They may not get a house with central heating.
Note that `could not' normally refers to ability in the past. See Unit 83.
3 When there is a possibility that something happened in the past, but you are not certain if it actually happened, you use `could have', `may have', or `might have', followed by a past participle.
It could have been tomato soup.
You may have noticed this advertisement.
You can also use `might not have' or `may not have' in this way.
He might not have seen me.
They may not have done it.
You use `could not have' when you want to indicate that it is not possible that something happened.
He didn't have a boat, so he couldn't have rowed away.
It couldn't have been wrong.
You also use `could have' to say that there was a possibility of something happening in the past, but it did not happen.
It could have been awful. (But it wasn't awful.)
You could have got a job last year. (But you didn't get a job.)
4 You also use `might have' or `could have' followed by a past participle to say that if a particular thing had happened, then there was a possibility of something else happening.
She said it might have been all right, if the weather had been good. (But the weather wasn't good, so it wasn't all right.)
If I'd been there, I could have helped you. (But I wasn't there, so I couldn't help you.)
5 `Be able to', `not be able to', and `be unable to' are sometimes used instead of `can' and `cannot', for example after another modal, or when you want to use a `to'-infinitive, an `-ing' form, or a past participle.
When will I be able to pick them up?
He had been unable to get a ticket.
6 You use `used to be able to' to say that something was possible in the past, but is not possible now.
Everyone used to be able to have free eye tests.
You used to be able to buy cigarettes in packs of five.
7 Note that you also use `could' followed by a negative word and the comparative form of an adjective to emphasize a quality that someone or something has. For example, if you say `I couldn't be happier', you mean that you are very happy indeed and cannot imagine being happier than you are now.
You couldn't be more wrong.
He could hardly have felt more ashamed of himself.
* You use `can' to say that something is possible.
* You use `could',`might', and `may' to indicate that you are not certain whether something is possible, but you think it is.
1 When you want to say that something is possible, you use `can'.
Cooking can be a real pleasure.
In some cases this can cause difficulty.
You use `cannot' or `can't' to say that something is not possible.
This cannot be the answer.
You can't be serious.
2 When you want to indicate that you are not certain whether something is possible, but you think it is, you use `could', `might', or `may'. There is no important difference in meaning between these modals, but `may' is slightly more formal.
That could be one reason.
He might come.
They may help us.
You can also use `might not' or `may not' in this way.
He might not be in England at all.
They may not get a house with central heating.
Note that `could not' normally refers to ability in the past. See Unit 83.
3 When there is a possibility that something happened in the past, but you are not certain if it actually happened, you use `could have', `may have', or `might have', followed by a past participle.
It could have been tomato soup.
You may have noticed this advertisement.
You can also use `might not have' or `may not have' in this way.
He might not have seen me.
They may not have done it.
You use `could not have' when you want to indicate that it is not possible that something happened.
He didn't have a boat, so he couldn't have rowed away.
It couldn't have been wrong.
You also use `could have' to say that there was a possibility of something happening in the past, but it did not happen.
It could have been awful. (But it wasn't awful.)
You could have got a job last year. (But you didn't get a job.)
4 You also use `might have' or `could have' followed by a past participle to say that if a particular thing had happened, then there was a possibility of something else happening.
She said it might have been all right, if the weather had been good. (But the weather wasn't good, so it wasn't all right.)
If I'd been there, I could have helped you. (But I wasn't there, so I couldn't help you.)
5 `Be able to', `not be able to', and `be unable to' are sometimes used instead of `can' and `cannot', for example after another modal, or when you want to use a `to'-infinitive, an `-ing' form, or a past participle.
When will I be able to pick them up?
He had been unable to get a ticket.
6 You use `used to be able to' to say that something was possible in the past, but is not possible now.
Everyone used to be able to have free eye tests.
You used to be able to buy cigarettes in packs of five.
7 Note that you also use `could' followed by a negative word and the comparative form of an adjective to emphasize a quality that someone or something has. For example, if you say `I couldn't be happier', you mean that you are very happy indeed and cannot imagine being happier than you are now.
You couldn't be more wrong.
He could hardly have felt more ashamed of himself.
Unit 82 Probability and certainty
Main points
* You use `must', `ought', `should', or `will' to express probability or certainty.
* You use `cannot' or `can't' as the negative of `must', rather than `must not' or `mustn't', to say that something is not probable or is not certain.
1 When you want to say that something is probably true or that it will probably happen, you use `should' or `ought'. `Should' is followed by the base form of a verb. `Ought' is followed by a `to'-infinitive.
We should arrive by dinner time.
She ought to know.
When you want to say that you think something is probably not true or that it will probably not happen, you use `should not' or `ought not'.
There shouldn't be any problem.
That ought not to be too difficult.
2 When you want to say that you are fairly sure that something has happened, you use `should have' or `ought to have', followed by a past participle.
You should have heard by now that I'm leaving.
They ought to have arrived yesterday.
When you want to say that you do not think that something has happened, you use `should not have' or `ought not to have', followed by a past participle.
You shouldn't have had any difficulty in getting there.
This ought not to have been a problem.
3 You also use `should have' or `ought to have' to say that you expected something to happen, but that it did not happen.
Yesterday should have been the start of the soccer season.
She ought to have been home by now.
Note that you do not normally use the negative forms with this meaning.
4 When you are fairly sure that something is the case, you use `must'.
Oh, you must be Sylvia's husband.
He must know something about it.
If you are fairly sure that something is not the case, you use `cannot' or `can't'.
This cannot be the whole story.
He can't be very old - he's about 25, isn't he?
WARNING: You do not use `must not' or `mustn't' with this meaning.
5 When you want to say that you are almost certain that something has happened, you use `must have', followed by a past participle.
This article must have been written by a woman.
We must have taken the wrong road.
To say that you do not think that something has happened, you use `can't have', followed by a past participle.
You can't have forgotten me.
He can't have said that.
6 You use `will' or `-'ll' to say that something is certain to happen in the future.
People will always say the things you want to hear.
They'll manage.
You use `will not' or `won't' to say that something is certain not to happen.
You won't get much sympathy from them.
7 There are several ways of talking about probability and certainty without using modals. For example, you can use:
* `bound to' followed by the base form of a verb
It was bound to happen.
You're bound to make a mistake.
* an adjective such as `certain', `likely', `sure', or `unlikely', followed by a `to'-infinitive clause or a `that'-clause
They were certain that you were defeated.
I am not likely to forget it.
See Unit 33 for more information on these adjectives.
* You use `must', `ought', `should', or `will' to express probability or certainty.
* You use `cannot' or `can't' as the negative of `must', rather than `must not' or `mustn't', to say that something is not probable or is not certain.
1 When you want to say that something is probably true or that it will probably happen, you use `should' or `ought'. `Should' is followed by the base form of a verb. `Ought' is followed by a `to'-infinitive.
We should arrive by dinner time.
She ought to know.
When you want to say that you think something is probably not true or that it will probably not happen, you use `should not' or `ought not'.
There shouldn't be any problem.
That ought not to be too difficult.
2 When you want to say that you are fairly sure that something has happened, you use `should have' or `ought to have', followed by a past participle.
You should have heard by now that I'm leaving.
They ought to have arrived yesterday.
When you want to say that you do not think that something has happened, you use `should not have' or `ought not to have', followed by a past participle.
You shouldn't have had any difficulty in getting there.
This ought not to have been a problem.
3 You also use `should have' or `ought to have' to say that you expected something to happen, but that it did not happen.
Yesterday should have been the start of the soccer season.
She ought to have been home by now.
Note that you do not normally use the negative forms with this meaning.
4 When you are fairly sure that something is the case, you use `must'.
Oh, you must be Sylvia's husband.
He must know something about it.
If you are fairly sure that something is not the case, you use `cannot' or `can't'.
This cannot be the whole story.
He can't be very old - he's about 25, isn't he?
WARNING: You do not use `must not' or `mustn't' with this meaning.
5 When you want to say that you are almost certain that something has happened, you use `must have', followed by a past participle.
This article must have been written by a woman.
We must have taken the wrong road.
To say that you do not think that something has happened, you use `can't have', followed by a past participle.
You can't have forgotten me.
He can't have said that.
6 You use `will' or `-'ll' to say that something is certain to happen in the future.
People will always say the things you want to hear.
They'll manage.
You use `will not' or `won't' to say that something is certain not to happen.
You won't get much sympathy from them.
7 There are several ways of talking about probability and certainty without using modals. For example, you can use:
* `bound to' followed by the base form of a verb
It was bound to happen.
You're bound to make a mistake.
* an adjective such as `certain', `likely', `sure', or `unlikely', followed by a `to'-infinitive clause or a `that'-clause
They were certain that you were defeated.
I am not likely to forget it.
See Unit 33 for more information on these adjectives.
Unit 83 Ability
Main points
* You use `can' to talk about ability in the present and in the future.
* You use `could' to talk about ability in the past.
* You use `be able to' to talk about ability in the present, future, and past.
1 You use `can' to say that someone has the ability to do something.
You can all read and write.
Anybody can become a qualified teacher.
You use `cannot' or `can't' to say that they do not have the ability to do something.
He cannot dance.
2 When you want to talk about someone's ability in the past as a result of a skill they had or did not have, you use `could', `could not', or `couldn't'.
He could run faster than anyone else.
A lot of them couldn't read or write.
3 You also use `be able to', `not be able to', and `be unable to' to talk about someone's ability to do something, but `can' and `could' are more common.
She was able to tie her own shoelaces.
They are not able to run very fast.
Many people were unable to read or write.
4 You use `was able to' and `were able to' to say that someone managed to do something in a particular situation in the past.
After treatment he was able to return to work.
The farmers were able to pay the new wages.
We were able to find time to discuss it.
WARNING: You do not normally use `could' to say that someone managed to do something in a particular situation. However, you can use `could not' or `couldn't' to say that someone did not manage to do something in a particular situation.
We couldn't stop laughing.
I just couldn't think of anything to say.
5 When you want to say that someone had the ability to do something in the past, but did not do it, you use `could have' followed by a past participle.
You could have given it all to me.
You know, she could have done French.
You often use this form when you want to express disapproval about something that was not done.
You could have been a little bit tidier.
You could have told me!
6 You use `could not have' or `couldn't have' followed by a past participle to say that it is not possible that someone had the ability to do something.
I couldn't have gone with you, because I was in London at the time.
She couldn't have taken the car, because Jim was using it.
7 In most cases, you can choose to use `can' or `be able to'. However, you sometimes have to use `be able to'. You have to use `be able to' if you are using another modal, or if you want to use an `-ing' form, a past participle, or a `to'-infinitive.
Nobody else will be able to read it.
...the satisfaction of being able to do the job.
I don't think I'd have been able to get an answer.
You're foolish to expect to be able to do that.
8 You also use `can' or `could' with verbs such as `see', `hear', and `smell' to say that someone is or was aware of something through one of their senses.
I can smell gas.
I can't see her.
I could see a few stars in the sky.
There was such a noise we couldn't hear.
* You use `can' to talk about ability in the present and in the future.
* You use `could' to talk about ability in the past.
* You use `be able to' to talk about ability in the present, future, and past.
1 You use `can' to say that someone has the ability to do something.
You can all read and write.
Anybody can become a qualified teacher.
You use `cannot' or `can't' to say that they do not have the ability to do something.
He cannot dance.
2 When you want to talk about someone's ability in the past as a result of a skill they had or did not have, you use `could', `could not', or `couldn't'.
He could run faster than anyone else.
A lot of them couldn't read or write.
3 You also use `be able to', `not be able to', and `be unable to' to talk about someone's ability to do something, but `can' and `could' are more common.
She was able to tie her own shoelaces.
They are not able to run very fast.
Many people were unable to read or write.
4 You use `was able to' and `were able to' to say that someone managed to do something in a particular situation in the past.
After treatment he was able to return to work.
The farmers were able to pay the new wages.
We were able to find time to discuss it.
WARNING: You do not normally use `could' to say that someone managed to do something in a particular situation. However, you can use `could not' or `couldn't' to say that someone did not manage to do something in a particular situation.
We couldn't stop laughing.
I just couldn't think of anything to say.
5 When you want to say that someone had the ability to do something in the past, but did not do it, you use `could have' followed by a past participle.
You could have given it all to me.
You know, she could have done French.
You often use this form when you want to express disapproval about something that was not done.
You could have been a little bit tidier.
You could have told me!
6 You use `could not have' or `couldn't have' followed by a past participle to say that it is not possible that someone had the ability to do something.
I couldn't have gone with you, because I was in London at the time.
She couldn't have taken the car, because Jim was using it.
7 In most cases, you can choose to use `can' or `be able to'. However, you sometimes have to use `be able to'. You have to use `be able to' if you are using another modal, or if you want to use an `-ing' form, a past participle, or a `to'-infinitive.
Nobody else will be able to read it.
...the satisfaction of being able to do the job.
I don't think I'd have been able to get an answer.
You're foolish to expect to be able to do that.
8 You also use `can' or `could' with verbs such as `see', `hear', and `smell' to say that someone is or was aware of something through one of their senses.
I can smell gas.
I can't see her.
I could see a few stars in the sky.
There was such a noise we couldn't hear.
Unit 84 Permission
Main points
* You use `can' or `be allowed to' to talk about whether someone has permission to do something or not.
* You usually use `can' to give someone permission to do something.
* You usually use `can' or `could' to ask for permission to do something.
1 You use `can' to say that someone is allowed to do something. You use `cannot' or `can't' to say that they are not allowed to do it.
Students can take a year away from university.
Children cannot bathe except in the presence of two lifesavers.
You use `could' to say that someone was allowed to do something in the past. You use `could not' or `couldn't' to say that they were not allowed to do it.
We could go to any part of the island we wanted.
Both students and staff could use the swimming pool.
We couldn't go into the library after 5 pm.
2 You also use `be allowed to' when you are talking about permission, but not when you are asking for it or giving it.
When Mr Wilt asks for a solicitor he will be allowed to see one.
It was only after several months that I was allowed to visit her.
You're not allowed to use calculators in exams.
3 In more formal situations, `may' is used to say that someone is allowed to do something, and `may not' is used to say that they are not allowed to do it.
They may do exactly as they like.
The retailer may not sell that book below the publisher's price.
4 When you want to give someone permission to do something, you use `can'.
You can borrow that pen if you want to.
You can go off duty now.
She can go with you.
`May' is also used to give permission, but this is more formal.
You may speak.
You may leave as soon as you have finished.
5 When you want to refuse someone permission to do something, you use `cannot', `can't', `will not', `won't', `shall not', or `shan't'.
`Can I have some sweets?' - `No, you can't!'
`I'll just go upstairs.' - `You will not!'
You shan't leave without my permission.
6 When you are asking for permission to do something, you use `can' or `could'. If you ask in a very simple and direct way, you use `can'.
Can I ask a question?
Can we have something to wipe our hands on please?
`Could' is more polite than `can'.
Could I just interrupt a minute?
Could we put this fire on?
`May' is also used to ask permission, but this is more formal.
May I have a cigarette?
`Might' is rather old-fashioned and is not often used in modern English in this way.
Might I inquire if you are the owner?
7 You have to use `be allowed to' instead of a modal if you are using another modal, or if you want to use an `-ing' form, a past participle, or a `to'-infinitive.
Teachers will be allowed to decide for themselves.
I am strongly in favour of people being allowed to put on plays.
They have not been allowed to come.
We were going to be allowed to travel on the trains.
* You use `can' or `be allowed to' to talk about whether someone has permission to do something or not.
* You usually use `can' to give someone permission to do something.
* You usually use `can' or `could' to ask for permission to do something.
1 You use `can' to say that someone is allowed to do something. You use `cannot' or `can't' to say that they are not allowed to do it.
Students can take a year away from university.
Children cannot bathe except in the presence of two lifesavers.
You use `could' to say that someone was allowed to do something in the past. You use `could not' or `couldn't' to say that they were not allowed to do it.
We could go to any part of the island we wanted.
Both students and staff could use the swimming pool.
We couldn't go into the library after 5 pm.
2 You also use `be allowed to' when you are talking about permission, but not when you are asking for it or giving it.
When Mr Wilt asks for a solicitor he will be allowed to see one.
It was only after several months that I was allowed to visit her.
You're not allowed to use calculators in exams.
3 In more formal situations, `may' is used to say that someone is allowed to do something, and `may not' is used to say that they are not allowed to do it.
They may do exactly as they like.
The retailer may not sell that book below the publisher's price.
4 When you want to give someone permission to do something, you use `can'.
You can borrow that pen if you want to.
You can go off duty now.
She can go with you.
`May' is also used to give permission, but this is more formal.
You may speak.
You may leave as soon as you have finished.
5 When you want to refuse someone permission to do something, you use `cannot', `can't', `will not', `won't', `shall not', or `shan't'.
`Can I have some sweets?' - `No, you can't!'
`I'll just go upstairs.' - `You will not!'
You shan't leave without my permission.
6 When you are asking for permission to do something, you use `can' or `could'. If you ask in a very simple and direct way, you use `can'.
Can I ask a question?
Can we have something to wipe our hands on please?
`Could' is more polite than `can'.
Could I just interrupt a minute?
Could we put this fire on?
`May' is also used to ask permission, but this is more formal.
May I have a cigarette?
`Might' is rather old-fashioned and is not often used in modern English in this way.
Might I inquire if you are the owner?
7 You have to use `be allowed to' instead of a modal if you are using another modal, or if you want to use an `-ing' form, a past participle, or a `to'-infinitive.
Teachers will be allowed to decide for themselves.
I am strongly in favour of people being allowed to put on plays.
They have not been allowed to come.
We were going to be allowed to travel on the trains.
Unit 85 Instructions and requests
Main points
* You use `Could you' to tell someone politely to do something.
* Imperatives are not very polite.
* You also use `Could you' to ask someone politely for help.
* You use `I would like', `Would you mind', `Do you think you could', and `I wonder if you could' to make requests.
1 When you want to tell someone to do something, you can use `Could you', `Will you', and `Would you'. `Could you' is very polite.
Could you make out her bill, please?
Could you just switch on the light behind you?
`Will you' and `Would you' are normally used by people in authority. `Would you' is more polite than `Will you'.
Would you tell her that Adrian phoned?
Will you please leave the room?
Note that although these sentences look like questions (`Will you', not `You will'), they are not really questions.
2 If someone in authority wants to tell someone to do something, they sometimes say `I would like you to do this' or `I'd like you to do this'.
Penelope, I would like you to get us the files.
I'd like you to finish this work by Thursday.
3 You can use an imperative to tell someone to do something, but this is not very polite.
Stop her.
Go away, all of you.
However, imperatives are commonly used when talking to people you know very well.
Come here, love.
Sit down and let me get you a drink.
You often use imperatives in situations of danger or urgency.
Look out! There's a car coming.
Put it away before Mum sees you.
4 When you want to ask someone to help you, you use `Could you', `Would you', `Can you', or `Will you'. `Could you' and `Would you' are used in formal situations, or when you want to be very polite, for example because you are asking for something that requires a lot of effort. `Could you' is more polite than `Would you'.
Could you show me how to do this?
Would you do me a favour?
`Will you' and `Can you' are used in informal situations, especially when you are not asking for something that requires a lot of effort.
Will you post this for me on your way to work?
Can you make me a copy of that?
5 You also use `I would like' or `I'd like', followed by a `to'-infinitive or a noun group, to make a request.
I would like to ask you one question.
I'd like steak and chips, please.
6 You can also make a request by using:
* `Would you mind', followed by an `-ing' form
Would you mind doing the washing up?
Would you mind waiting a moment?
* `Do you think you could', followed by the base form of a verb
Do you think you could help me?
* `I wonder if you could', followed by the base form of a verb
I wonder if you could look after my cat for me while I'm away?
* You use `Could you' to tell someone politely to do something.
* Imperatives are not very polite.
* You also use `Could you' to ask someone politely for help.
* You use `I would like', `Would you mind', `Do you think you could', and `I wonder if you could' to make requests.
1 When you want to tell someone to do something, you can use `Could you', `Will you', and `Would you'. `Could you' is very polite.
Could you make out her bill, please?
Could you just switch on the light behind you?
`Will you' and `Would you' are normally used by people in authority. `Would you' is more polite than `Will you'.
Would you tell her that Adrian phoned?
Will you please leave the room?
Note that although these sentences look like questions (`Will you', not `You will'), they are not really questions.
2 If someone in authority wants to tell someone to do something, they sometimes say `I would like you to do this' or `I'd like you to do this'.
Penelope, I would like you to get us the files.
I'd like you to finish this work by Thursday.
3 You can use an imperative to tell someone to do something, but this is not very polite.
Stop her.
Go away, all of you.
However, imperatives are commonly used when talking to people you know very well.
Come here, love.
Sit down and let me get you a drink.
You often use imperatives in situations of danger or urgency.
Look out! There's a car coming.
Put it away before Mum sees you.
4 When you want to ask someone to help you, you use `Could you', `Would you', `Can you', or `Will you'. `Could you' and `Would you' are used in formal situations, or when you want to be very polite, for example because you are asking for something that requires a lot of effort. `Could you' is more polite than `Would you'.
Could you show me how to do this?
Would you do me a favour?
`Will you' and `Can you' are used in informal situations, especially when you are not asking for something that requires a lot of effort.
Will you post this for me on your way to work?
Can you make me a copy of that?
5 You also use `I would like' or `I'd like', followed by a `to'-infinitive or a noun group, to make a request.
I would like to ask you one question.
I'd like steak and chips, please.
6 You can also make a request by using:
* `Would you mind', followed by an `-ing' form
Would you mind doing the washing up?
Would you mind waiting a moment?
* `Do you think you could', followed by the base form of a verb
Do you think you could help me?
* `I wonder if you could', followed by the base form of a verb
I wonder if you could look after my cat for me while I'm away?
Unit 86 Suggestions
Main points
* You use `could', `couldn't', or `shall' to make a suggestion.
* You use `Shall we' to suggest doing something with someone.
* You use `You might like' or `You might want' to make polite suggestions.
* You use `may as well' or `might as well' to suggest a sensible action.
* You use `What about', `Let's', `Why don't', and `Why not' to make suggestions.
1 You use `could' to suggest doing something.
You could phone her.
She could go into research.
We could go on Friday.
You also use `couldn't' in a question to suggest doing something.
Couldn't you just build some more factories?
Couldn't we do it at the weekend?
2 You use `Shall we' to suggest doing something with somebody else.
Shall we go and see a film?
Shall we talk about something different now?
You use `Shall I' to suggest doing something yourself.
Shall I contact the Chairman?
3 You use `You might', followed by a verb meaning `like' or `want', to make a suggestion in a very polite way.
I thought perhaps you might like to come along with me.
You might want to try another shop.
You can also do this using `It might be', followed by a noun group or an adjective, and a `to'-infinitive.
I think it might be a good idea to stop recording now.
It might be wise to get a new car.
4 You use `may as well' or `might as well' to suggest doing something, but only because it seems the sensible thing to do, or because there is no reason not to do it.
You may as well open them all.
He might as well take the car.
5 You can also make a suggestion by using:
* `What about' or `How about' followed by an `-ing' form
What about going to Judy's?
How about using my car?
* `Let's' followed by the base form of a verb
Let's go outside.
* `Why don't I', `Why don't you' or `Why don't we' followed by the base form of a verb
Why don't I pick you up at seven?
Why don't you write to her yourself?
Why don't we just give them what they want?
* `Why not' followed by the base form of a verb
Why not bring him along?
Why not try both?
* You use `could', `couldn't', or `shall' to make a suggestion.
* You use `Shall we' to suggest doing something with someone.
* You use `You might like' or `You might want' to make polite suggestions.
* You use `may as well' or `might as well' to suggest a sensible action.
* You use `What about', `Let's', `Why don't', and `Why not' to make suggestions.
1 You use `could' to suggest doing something.
You could phone her.
She could go into research.
We could go on Friday.
You also use `couldn't' in a question to suggest doing something.
Couldn't you just build some more factories?
Couldn't we do it at the weekend?
2 You use `Shall we' to suggest doing something with somebody else.
Shall we go and see a film?
Shall we talk about something different now?
You use `Shall I' to suggest doing something yourself.
Shall I contact the Chairman?
3 You use `You might', followed by a verb meaning `like' or `want', to make a suggestion in a very polite way.
I thought perhaps you might like to come along with me.
You might want to try another shop.
You can also do this using `It might be', followed by a noun group or an adjective, and a `to'-infinitive.
I think it might be a good idea to stop recording now.
It might be wise to get a new car.
4 You use `may as well' or `might as well' to suggest doing something, but only because it seems the sensible thing to do, or because there is no reason not to do it.
You may as well open them all.
He might as well take the car.
5 You can also make a suggestion by using:
* `What about' or `How about' followed by an `-ing' form
What about going to Judy's?
How about using my car?
* `Let's' followed by the base form of a verb
Let's go outside.
* `Why don't I', `Why don't you' or `Why don't we' followed by the base form of a verb
Why don't I pick you up at seven?
Why don't you write to her yourself?
Why don't we just give them what they want?
* `Why not' followed by the base form of a verb
Why not bring him along?
Why not try both?
Unit 87 Offers and invitations
Main points
* You use `Would you like' to offer something to someone or to invite them to do something.
* You use `Can I', `Could I', and `Shall I' when you offer to help someone.
1 When you are offering something to someone, or inviting them to do something, you use `Would you like'.
Would you like a drink?
Would you like to come for a meal?
You can use `Will you' to offer something to someone you know quite well, or to give an invitation in a fairly informal way.
Will you have another biscuit, Dave?
Will you come to my party on Saturday?
2 You use `Can I' or `Could I' when you are offering to do something for someone. `Could I' is more polite.
Can I help you with the dishes?
Could I help you carry those bags?
You also use `Shall I' when you are offering to do something, especially if you are fairly sure that your offer will be accepted.
Shall I shut the door?
Shall I spell that for you?
3 You use `I can' or `I could' to make an offer when you want to say that you are able to help someone.
I have a car. I can take Daisy to the station.
I could pay some of the rent.
4 You also use `I'll' to offer to do something.
I'll give them a ring if you like.
I'll show you the hotel.
5 You use `You must' if you want to invite someone very persuasively to do something.
You must come round for a meal some time.
You must come and visit me.
6 There are other ways of making offers and giving invitations without using modals. For example, you can use `Let me' when offering to help someone.
Let me take you to your room.
Let me drive you to London.
You can make an offer or give an invitation in a more informal way by using an imperative sentence, when it is clear that you are not giving an order.
Have a cigar.
Come to my place.
You can add emphasis by putting `do' in front of the verb.
Do have a chocolate biscuit.
Do help yourselves.
You can also give an invitation by using `Why don't you' or `How about'.
Why don't you come to lunch tomorrow?
How about coming with us to the party?
* You use `Would you like' to offer something to someone or to invite them to do something.
* You use `Can I', `Could I', and `Shall I' when you offer to help someone.
1 When you are offering something to someone, or inviting them to do something, you use `Would you like'.
Would you like a drink?
Would you like to come for a meal?
You can use `Will you' to offer something to someone you know quite well, or to give an invitation in a fairly informal way.
Will you have another biscuit, Dave?
Will you come to my party on Saturday?
2 You use `Can I' or `Could I' when you are offering to do something for someone. `Could I' is more polite.
Can I help you with the dishes?
Could I help you carry those bags?
You also use `Shall I' when you are offering to do something, especially if you are fairly sure that your offer will be accepted.
Shall I shut the door?
Shall I spell that for you?
3 You use `I can' or `I could' to make an offer when you want to say that you are able to help someone.
I have a car. I can take Daisy to the station.
I could pay some of the rent.
4 You also use `I'll' to offer to do something.
I'll give them a ring if you like.
I'll show you the hotel.
5 You use `You must' if you want to invite someone very persuasively to do something.
You must come round for a meal some time.
You must come and visit me.
6 There are other ways of making offers and giving invitations without using modals. For example, you can use `Let me' when offering to help someone.
Let me take you to your room.
Let me drive you to London.
You can make an offer or give an invitation in a more informal way by using an imperative sentence, when it is clear that you are not giving an order.
Have a cigar.
Come to my place.
You can add emphasis by putting `do' in front of the verb.
Do have a chocolate biscuit.
Do help yourselves.
You can also give an invitation by using `Why don't you' or `How about'.
Why don't you come to lunch tomorrow?
How about coming with us to the party?
Unit 88 Wants and wishes
Main points
* You use `would like' to say what you want.
* You use `wouldn't like' to say what you do not want.
* You use `would rather' or `would sooner' to say what you prefer.
* You also use `wouldn't mind' to say what you want.
1 You can say what someone wants by using `would like' followed by a `to'-infinitive or a noun group.
I would like to know the date of the next meeting.
John would like his book back.
When the subject is a pronoun, you often use the short form `-'d' instead of `would'.
I'd like more information about the work you do.
We'd like seats in the non-smoking section, please.
In spoken English, you can also use the short form `-'d' instead of `would' when the subject is a noun.
Sally'd like to go to the circus.
2 You can say what someone does not want by using `would not like' or `wouldn't like'.
I would not like to see it.
They wouldn't like that.
3 You use `would like' followed by `to have' and a past participle to say that someone wishes now that something had happened in the past, but that it did not happen.
I would like to have felt more relaxed.
She'd like to have heard me first.
You use `would have liked', followed by a `to'-infinitive or a noun group, to say that someone wanted something to happen, but it did not happen.
Perhaps he would have liked to be a teacher.
I would have liked more ice cream.
Note the difference. `Would like to have' refers to present wishes about past events. 'Would have liked' refers to past wishes about past events.
4 You can also use `would hate', `would love', or `would prefer', followed by a `to'-infinitive or a noun group.
I would hate to move to another house now.
I would prefer a cup of coffee.
Note that `would enjoy' is followed by a noun group or an `-ing' form, not by a `to'-infinitive.
I would enjoy a bath before we go.
I would enjoy seeing him again.
5 You can use `would rather' or `would sooner' followed by the base form of a verb to say that someone prefers one situation to another.
He'd rather be playing golf.
I'd sooner walk than take the bus.
6 You use `I wouldn't mind', followed by an `-ing' form or a noun group, to say that you would like to do or have something.
I wouldn't mind being the manager of a store.
I wouldn't mind a cup of tea.
* You use `would like' to say what you want.
* You use `wouldn't like' to say what you do not want.
* You use `would rather' or `would sooner' to say what you prefer.
* You also use `wouldn't mind' to say what you want.
1 You can say what someone wants by using `would like' followed by a `to'-infinitive or a noun group.
I would like to know the date of the next meeting.
John would like his book back.
When the subject is a pronoun, you often use the short form `-'d' instead of `would'.
I'd like more information about the work you do.
We'd like seats in the non-smoking section, please.
In spoken English, you can also use the short form `-'d' instead of `would' when the subject is a noun.
Sally'd like to go to the circus.
2 You can say what someone does not want by using `would not like' or `wouldn't like'.
I would not like to see it.
They wouldn't like that.
3 You use `would like' followed by `to have' and a past participle to say that someone wishes now that something had happened in the past, but that it did not happen.
I would like to have felt more relaxed.
She'd like to have heard me first.
You use `would have liked', followed by a `to'-infinitive or a noun group, to say that someone wanted something to happen, but it did not happen.
Perhaps he would have liked to be a teacher.
I would have liked more ice cream.
Note the difference. `Would like to have' refers to present wishes about past events. 'Would have liked' refers to past wishes about past events.
4 You can also use `would hate', `would love', or `would prefer', followed by a `to'-infinitive or a noun group.
I would hate to move to another house now.
I would prefer a cup of coffee.
Note that `would enjoy' is followed by a noun group or an `-ing' form, not by a `to'-infinitive.
I would enjoy a bath before we go.
I would enjoy seeing him again.
5 You can use `would rather' or `would sooner' followed by the base form of a verb to say that someone prefers one situation to another.
He'd rather be playing golf.
I'd sooner walk than take the bus.
6 You use `I wouldn't mind', followed by an `-ing' form or a noun group, to say that you would like to do or have something.
I wouldn't mind being the manager of a store.
I wouldn't mind a cup of tea.
Unit 89 Obligation and necessity 1
Main points
* You use `have to', `must', and `mustn't' to talk about obligation and necessity in the present and future.
* You use `had to' to talk about obligation and necessity in the past.
* You use the auxiliary `do' with `have to' to make questions.
* You use `have got to' in informal English.
1 When you want to say that someone has an obligation to do something, or that it is necessary for them to do it, you use `must' or `have to'.
You must come to the meeting tomorrow.
The plants must have plenty of sunshine.
I enjoy parties, unless I have to make a speech.
He has to travel to find work.
2 There is sometimes a difference between `must' and `have to'. When you are stating your own opinion that something is an obligation or a necessity, you normally use `must'.
I must be very careful not to upset him.
We must eat before we go.
He must stop working so hard.
When you are giving information about what someone else considers to be an obligation or a necessity, you normally use `have to'.
They have to pay the bill by Thursday.
She has to go now.
Note that you normally use `have to' for things that happen repeatedly, especially with adverbs of frequency such as `often', `always', and `regularly'.
I always have to do the shopping.
You often have to wait a long time for a bus.
3 You use `must not' or `mustn't' to say that it is important that something is not done or does not happen.
You must not talk about politics.
They mustn't find out that I came here.
Note that `must not' does not mean the same as `not have to'. If you `must not' do something, it is important that you do not do it.
If you `do not have to' do something, it is not necessary for you to do it, but you can do it if you want.
WARNING: You only use `must' for obligation and necessity in the present and the future. When you want to talk about obligation and necessity in the past, you use `had to' rather than `must'.
She had to catch the six o'clock train.
I had to wear a suit.
4 You use `do', `does', or `did' when you want to make a question using `have to' and `not have to'.
How often do you have to buy petrol for the car?
Does he have to take so long to get ready?
What did you have to do?
Don't you have to be there at one o'clock?
WARNING: You do not normally form questions like these by putting a form of `have' before the subject. For example, you do not normally say `How often have you to buy petrol?'
5 In informal English, you can use `have got to' instead of `have to'.
You've just got to make sure you tell him.
She's got to see the doctor.
Have you got to go so soon?
WARNING: You normally use `had to', not `had got to', for the past.
He had to know.
I had to lend him some money.
6 You can only use `have to', not `must', if you are using another modal, or if you want to use an `-ing' form, a past participle, or a `to'-infinitive.
They may have to be paid by cheque.
She grumbled a lot about having to stay abroad.
I would have had to go through London.
He doesn't like to have to do the same job every day.
* You use `have to', `must', and `mustn't' to talk about obligation and necessity in the present and future.
* You use `had to' to talk about obligation and necessity in the past.
* You use the auxiliary `do' with `have to' to make questions.
* You use `have got to' in informal English.
1 When you want to say that someone has an obligation to do something, or that it is necessary for them to do it, you use `must' or `have to'.
You must come to the meeting tomorrow.
The plants must have plenty of sunshine.
I enjoy parties, unless I have to make a speech.
He has to travel to find work.
2 There is sometimes a difference between `must' and `have to'. When you are stating your own opinion that something is an obligation or a necessity, you normally use `must'.
I must be very careful not to upset him.
We must eat before we go.
He must stop working so hard.
When you are giving information about what someone else considers to be an obligation or a necessity, you normally use `have to'.
They have to pay the bill by Thursday.
She has to go now.
Note that you normally use `have to' for things that happen repeatedly, especially with adverbs of frequency such as `often', `always', and `regularly'.
I always have to do the shopping.
You often have to wait a long time for a bus.
3 You use `must not' or `mustn't' to say that it is important that something is not done or does not happen.
You must not talk about politics.
They mustn't find out that I came here.
Note that `must not' does not mean the same as `not have to'. If you `must not' do something, it is important that you do not do it.
If you `do not have to' do something, it is not necessary for you to do it, but you can do it if you want.
WARNING: You only use `must' for obligation and necessity in the present and the future. When you want to talk about obligation and necessity in the past, you use `had to' rather than `must'.
She had to catch the six o'clock train.
I had to wear a suit.
4 You use `do', `does', or `did' when you want to make a question using `have to' and `not have to'.
How often do you have to buy petrol for the car?
Does he have to take so long to get ready?
What did you have to do?
Don't you have to be there at one o'clock?
WARNING: You do not normally form questions like these by putting a form of `have' before the subject. For example, you do not normally say `How often have you to buy petrol?'
5 In informal English, you can use `have got to' instead of `have to'.
You've just got to make sure you tell him.
She's got to see the doctor.
Have you got to go so soon?
WARNING: You normally use `had to', not `had got to', for the past.
He had to know.
I had to lend him some money.
6 You can only use `have to', not `must', if you are using another modal, or if you want to use an `-ing' form, a past participle, or a `to'-infinitive.
They may have to be paid by cheque.
She grumbled a lot about having to stay abroad.
I would have had to go through London.
He doesn't like to have to do the same job every day.
Unit 90 Obligation and necessity 2
Main points
* You use `need to' to talk about necessity.
* You use `don't have to', `don't need to', `haven't got to', or `needn't' to say that it is not necessary to do something.
* You use `needn't' to give someone permission not to do something.
* You use `need not have', `needn't have', `didn't need to', or `didn't have to' to say that it was not necessary to do something in the past.
1 You can use `need to' to talk about the necessity of doing something.
You might need to see a doctor.
A number of questions need to be asked.
2 You use `don't have to' when there is no obligation or necessity to do something.
Many women don't have to work.
You don't have to learn any new typing skills.
You can also use `don't need to', `haven't got to', or `needn't' to say that there is no obligation or necessity to do something.
You don't need to buy anything.
I haven't got to go to work today.
I can pick John up. You needn't bother.
3 You also use `needn't' when you are giving someone permission not to do something.
You needn't say anything if you don't want to.
You needn't stay any longer tonight.
4 You use `need not have' or `needn't have' and a past participle to say that someone did something which was not necessary. You are often implying that the person did not know at the time that their action was not necessary.
I needn't have waited until the game began.
Nell needn't have worked.
They needn't have worried about Reagan.
5 You use `didn't need to' to say that something was not necessary, and that it was known at the time that the action was not necessary. You do not know if the action was done, unless you are given more information.
They didn't need to talk about it.
I didn't need to worry.
6 You also use `didn't have to' to say that it was not necessary to do something.
He didn't have to speak.
Bill and I didn't have to pay.
7 You cannot use `must' to refer to the past, so when you want to say that it was important that something did not happen or was not done, you use other expressions.
You can say `It was important not to', or use phrases like `had to make sure' or `had to make certain' in a negative sentence.
It was important not to take the game too seriously.
It was necessary that no one was aware of being watched.
You had to make sure that you didn't spend too much.
We had to do our best to make certain that it wasn't out of date.
* You use `need to' to talk about necessity.
* You use `don't have to', `don't need to', `haven't got to', or `needn't' to say that it is not necessary to do something.
* You use `needn't' to give someone permission not to do something.
* You use `need not have', `needn't have', `didn't need to', or `didn't have to' to say that it was not necessary to do something in the past.
1 You can use `need to' to talk about the necessity of doing something.
You might need to see a doctor.
A number of questions need to be asked.
2 You use `don't have to' when there is no obligation or necessity to do something.
Many women don't have to work.
You don't have to learn any new typing skills.
You can also use `don't need to', `haven't got to', or `needn't' to say that there is no obligation or necessity to do something.
You don't need to buy anything.
I haven't got to go to work today.
I can pick John up. You needn't bother.
3 You also use `needn't' when you are giving someone permission not to do something.
You needn't say anything if you don't want to.
You needn't stay any longer tonight.
4 You use `need not have' or `needn't have' and a past participle to say that someone did something which was not necessary. You are often implying that the person did not know at the time that their action was not necessary.
I needn't have waited until the game began.
Nell needn't have worked.
They needn't have worried about Reagan.
5 You use `didn't need to' to say that something was not necessary, and that it was known at the time that the action was not necessary. You do not know if the action was done, unless you are given more information.
They didn't need to talk about it.
I didn't need to worry.
6 You also use `didn't have to' to say that it was not necessary to do something.
He didn't have to speak.
Bill and I didn't have to pay.
7 You cannot use `must' to refer to the past, so when you want to say that it was important that something did not happen or was not done, you use other expressions.
You can say `It was important not to', or use phrases like `had to make sure' or `had to make certain' in a negative sentence.
It was important not to take the game too seriously.
It was necessary that no one was aware of being watched.
You had to make sure that you didn't spend too much.
We had to do our best to make certain that it wasn't out of date.
Unit 91 Mild obligation and advice
Main points
* You use `should' and `ought' to talk about mild obligation.
* You use `should have' and `ought to have' to say that there was a mild obligation to do something in the past, but it was not done.
* You can also use `had better' to talk about mild obligation.
1 You can use `should' and `ought' to talk about a mild obligation to do something. When you use `should' and `ought', you are saying that the feeling of obligation is not as strong as when you use `must'.
`Should' and `ought' are very common in spoken English.
`Should' is followed by the base form of a verb, but `ought' is followed by a `to'-infinitive.
When you want to say that there is a mild obligation not to do something, you use `should not', `shouldn't, `ought not', or `oughtn't'.
2 You use `should' and `ought' in three main ways:
* when you are talking about what is a good thing to do, or the right thing to do.
We should send her a postcard.
We shouldn't spend all the money.
He ought to come more often.
You ought not to see him again.
* when you are trying to advise someone about what to do or what not to do.
You should claim your pension 3-4 months before you retire.
You shouldn't use a detergent.
You ought to get a new TV.
You oughtn't to marry him.
* when you are giving or asking for an opinion about a situation. You often use `I think', `I don't think', or `Do you think' to start the sentence.
I think that we should be paid more.
I don't think we ought to grumble.
Do you think he ought not to go?
What do you think we should do?
3 You use `should have' or `ought to have' and a past participle to say that there was a mild obligation to do something in the past, but that it was not done. For example, if you say `I should have given him the money yesterday', you mean that you had a mild obligation to give him the money yesterday, but you did not give it to him.
I should have finished my drink and gone home.
You should have realised that he was joking.
We ought to have stayed in tonight.
They ought to have taken a taxi.
You use `should not have' or `ought not to have' and a past participle to say that it was important not to do something in the past, but that it was done. For example, if you say `I should not have left the door open', you mean that it was important that you did not leave the door open, but you did leave it open.
I should not have said that.
You shouldn't have given him the money.
They ought not to have told him.
She oughtn't to have sold the ring.
4 You use `had better' followed by a base form to indicate mild obligation to do something in a particular situation. You also use `had better' when giving advice or when giving your opinion about something. The negative is `had better not'.
I think I had better show this to you now.
You'd better go tomorrow.
I'd better not look at this.
WARNING: The correct form is always `had better' (not `have better'). You do not use `had better' to talk about mild obligation in the past, even though it looks like a past form.
Next Unit
* You use `should' and `ought' to talk about mild obligation.
* You use `should have' and `ought to have' to say that there was a mild obligation to do something in the past, but it was not done.
* You can also use `had better' to talk about mild obligation.
1 You can use `should' and `ought' to talk about a mild obligation to do something. When you use `should' and `ought', you are saying that the feeling of obligation is not as strong as when you use `must'.
`Should' and `ought' are very common in spoken English.
`Should' is followed by the base form of a verb, but `ought' is followed by a `to'-infinitive.
When you want to say that there is a mild obligation not to do something, you use `should not', `shouldn't, `ought not', or `oughtn't'.
2 You use `should' and `ought' in three main ways:
* when you are talking about what is a good thing to do, or the right thing to do.
We should send her a postcard.
We shouldn't spend all the money.
He ought to come more often.
You ought not to see him again.
* when you are trying to advise someone about what to do or what not to do.
You should claim your pension 3-4 months before you retire.
You shouldn't use a detergent.
You ought to get a new TV.
You oughtn't to marry him.
* when you are giving or asking for an opinion about a situation. You often use `I think', `I don't think', or `Do you think' to start the sentence.
I think that we should be paid more.
I don't think we ought to grumble.
Do you think he ought not to go?
What do you think we should do?
3 You use `should have' or `ought to have' and a past participle to say that there was a mild obligation to do something in the past, but that it was not done. For example, if you say `I should have given him the money yesterday', you mean that you had a mild obligation to give him the money yesterday, but you did not give it to him.
I should have finished my drink and gone home.
You should have realised that he was joking.
We ought to have stayed in tonight.
They ought to have taken a taxi.
You use `should not have' or `ought not to have' and a past participle to say that it was important not to do something in the past, but that it was done. For example, if you say `I should not have left the door open', you mean that it was important that you did not leave the door open, but you did leave it open.
I should not have said that.
You shouldn't have given him the money.
They ought not to have told him.
She oughtn't to have sold the ring.
4 You use `had better' followed by a base form to indicate mild obligation to do something in a particular situation. You also use `had better' when giving advice or when giving your opinion about something. The negative is `had better not'.
I think I had better show this to you now.
You'd better go tomorrow.
I'd better not look at this.
WARNING: The correct form is always `had better' (not `have better'). You do not use `had better' to talk about mild obligation in the past, even though it looks like a past form.
Next Unit
Unit 92 Defining relative clauses
Main points
* You use defining relative clauses to say exactly which person or thing you are talking about.
* Defining relative clauses are usually introduced by a relative pronoun such as `that', `which', `who', `whom', or `whose'.
* A defining relative clause comes immediately after noun, and needs a main clause to make a complete sentence.
1 You use defining relative clauses to give information that helps to identify the person or thing you are talking about.
The man who you met yesterday was my brother.
The car which crashed into me belonged to Paul.
When you are talking about people, you use `that' or `who' in the relative clause.
He was the man that bought my house.
You are the only person here who knows me.
When you are talking about things, you use `that' or `which' in the relative clause.
There was ice cream that Mum had made herself.
I will tell you the first thing which I can remember.
2 `That', `who', or `which' can be:
* the subject of the verb in the relative clause
The thing that really surprised me was his attitude.
The woman who lives next door is very friendly.
The car which caused the accident drove off.
* the object of the verb in the relative clause
The thing that I really liked about it was its size.
The woman who you met yesterday lives next door.
The car which I wanted to buy was not for sale.
In formal English, `whom' is used instead of `who' as the object of the verb in the relative clause.
She was a woman whom I greatly respected.
3 You can leave out `that', `who', or `which' when they are the object of the verb in the relative clause.
The woman you met yesterday lives next door.
The car I wanted to buy was not for sale.
The thing I really liked about it was its size.
WARNING: You cannot leave out `that', `who', or `which' when they are the subject of the verb in the relative clause. For example, you say `The woman who lives next door is very friendly'. You do not say `The woman lives next door is very friendly'.
4 A relative pronoun in a relative clause can be the object of a preposition. Usually the preposition goes at the end of the clause.
I wanted to do the job which I'd been training for.
The house that we lived in was huge.
You can often omit a relative pronoun that is the object of a preposition.
Angela was the only person I could talk to.
She's the girl I sang the song for.
The preposition always goes in front of `whom', and in front of `which' in formal English.
These are the people to whom Catherine was referring.
He was asking questions to which there were no answers.
5 You use `whose' in relative clauses to indicate who something belongs to or relates to. You normally use `whose' for people, not for things.
A child whose mother had left him was crying loudly.
We have only told the people whose work is relevant to this project.
6 You can use `when', `where', and `why' in defining relative clauses after certain nouns. You use `when' after `time' or time words such as `day' or `year'. You use `where' after `place' or place words such as `room' or `street'. You use `why' after `reason'.
There had been a time when she hated all men.
This is the year when profits should increase.
He showed me the place where they work.
That was the room where I did my homework.
There are several reasons why we can't do that.
Next Unit
* You use defining relative clauses to say exactly which person or thing you are talking about.
* Defining relative clauses are usually introduced by a relative pronoun such as `that', `which', `who', `whom', or `whose'.
* A defining relative clause comes immediately after noun, and needs a main clause to make a complete sentence.
1 You use defining relative clauses to give information that helps to identify the person or thing you are talking about.
The man who you met yesterday was my brother.
The car which crashed into me belonged to Paul.
When you are talking about people, you use `that' or `who' in the relative clause.
He was the man that bought my house.
You are the only person here who knows me.
When you are talking about things, you use `that' or `which' in the relative clause.
There was ice cream that Mum had made herself.
I will tell you the first thing which I can remember.
2 `That', `who', or `which' can be:
* the subject of the verb in the relative clause
The thing that really surprised me was his attitude.
The woman who lives next door is very friendly.
The car which caused the accident drove off.
* the object of the verb in the relative clause
The thing that I really liked about it was its size.
The woman who you met yesterday lives next door.
The car which I wanted to buy was not for sale.
In formal English, `whom' is used instead of `who' as the object of the verb in the relative clause.
She was a woman whom I greatly respected.
3 You can leave out `that', `who', or `which' when they are the object of the verb in the relative clause.
The woman you met yesterday lives next door.
The car I wanted to buy was not for sale.
The thing I really liked about it was its size.
WARNING: You cannot leave out `that', `who', or `which' when they are the subject of the verb in the relative clause. For example, you say `The woman who lives next door is very friendly'. You do not say `The woman lives next door is very friendly'.
4 A relative pronoun in a relative clause can be the object of a preposition. Usually the preposition goes at the end of the clause.
I wanted to do the job which I'd been training for.
The house that we lived in was huge.
You can often omit a relative pronoun that is the object of a preposition.
Angela was the only person I could talk to.
She's the girl I sang the song for.
The preposition always goes in front of `whom', and in front of `which' in formal English.
These are the people to whom Catherine was referring.
He was asking questions to which there were no answers.
5 You use `whose' in relative clauses to indicate who something belongs to or relates to. You normally use `whose' for people, not for things.
A child whose mother had left him was crying loudly.
We have only told the people whose work is relevant to this project.
6 You can use `when', `where', and `why' in defining relative clauses after certain nouns. You use `when' after `time' or time words such as `day' or `year'. You use `where' after `place' or place words such as `room' or `street'. You use `why' after `reason'.
There had been a time when she hated all men.
This is the year when profits should increase.
He showed me the place where they work.
That was the room where I did my homework.
There are several reasons why we can't do that.
Next Unit
Unit 93 Non-defining clauses
Main points
* You use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing you are talking about.
* Non-defining relative clauses must be introduced by a relative pronoun such as `which', `who', `whom', or `whose'.
* A non-defining relative clause comes immediately after a noun and needs a main clause to make a complete sentence.
1 You use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing you are talking about. The information is not needed to identify that person or thing.
Professor Marvin, who was always early, was there already.
`Who was always early' gives extra information about Professor Marvin. This is a non-defining relative clause, because it is not needed to identify the person you are talking about. We already know that you are talking about Professor Marvin.
Note that in written English, a non-defining relative clause is usually separated from the main clause by a comma, or by two commas.
I went to the cinema with Mary, who I think you met.
British Rail, which has launched an enquiry, said one coach was badly damaged.
2 You always start a non-defining relative clause with a relative pronoun. When you are talking about people, you use `who'. `Who' can be the subject or object of a non-defining relative clause.
Heath Robinson, who died in 1944, was a graphic artist and cartoonist.
I was in the same group as Janice, who I like a lot.
In formal English, `whom' is sometimes used instead of `who' as the object of a non-defining relative clause.
She was engaged to a sailor, whom she had met at Dartmouth.
3 When you are talking about things, you use `which' as the subject or object of a non-defining relative clause.
I am teaching at the Selly Oak centre, which is just over the road.
He was a man of considerable inherited wealth, which he ultimately spent on his experiments.
WARNING: You do not normally use `that' in non-defining relative clauses.
4 You can also use a non-defining relative clause beginning with `which' to say something about the whole situation described in a main clause.
I never met Brando again, which was a pity.
She was a little tense, which was understandable.
Small computers need only small amounts of power, which means that they will run on small batteries.
5 When you are talking about a group of people or things and then want to say something about only some of them, you can use one of the following expressions:
many of which, many of whom, none of which, none of whom, one of which, one of whom, some of which, some of whom
He talked about several very interesting people, some of whom he was still in contact with.
6 You can use `when' and `where' in non-defining relative clauses after expressions of time or place.
This happened in 1957, when I was still a baby.
She has just come back from a holiday in Crete, where Alex and I went last year.
Unit 94 Participle clauses
Main points
* Nouns are followed by `-ing' clauses that say what a person or thing is doing.
* Nouns are followed by `-ed' clauses that show that a person or thing has been affected or caused by an action.
1 You can often give more information about a noun, or an indefinite pronoun such as `someone' or `something', by adding a clause beginning with an `-ing' form, an `-ed' form, or a `to'-infinitive.
He gestured towards the box lying on the table.
I think the idea suggested by Tim is the best one.
She wanted someone to talk to.
2 You use an `-ing' clause after a noun to say what someone or something is doing or was doing at a particular time.
The young girl sitting opposite him was his daughter.
Most of the people strolling in the park were teenagers.
3 You can also use an `-ing' clause after a noun to say what a person or thing does generally, rather than at a particular time.
Problems facing parents should be discussed.
The men working there were not very friendly.
4 You often use an `-ing' clause after a noun which is the object of a verb of perception, such as `see', `hear', or `feel'.
See also Unit 72.
Suddenly we saw Amy walking down the path.
He heard a distant voice shouting.
I could feel something touching my face and neck , something ice-cold.
5 You use an `-ed' clause after a noun to show that someone or something has been affected or caused by an action.
He was the new minister appointed by the President.
The man injured in the accident was taken to hospital.
Remember that not all verbs have regular `-ed' forms.
A story written by a young girl won the competition.
She was wearing a dress bought in Paris.
* You use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing you are talking about.
* Non-defining relative clauses must be introduced by a relative pronoun such as `which', `who', `whom', or `whose'.
* A non-defining relative clause comes immediately after a noun and needs a main clause to make a complete sentence.
1 You use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing you are talking about. The information is not needed to identify that person or thing.
Professor Marvin, who was always early, was there already.
`Who was always early' gives extra information about Professor Marvin. This is a non-defining relative clause, because it is not needed to identify the person you are talking about. We already know that you are talking about Professor Marvin.
Note that in written English, a non-defining relative clause is usually separated from the main clause by a comma, or by two commas.
I went to the cinema with Mary, who I think you met.
British Rail, which has launched an enquiry, said one coach was badly damaged.
2 You always start a non-defining relative clause with a relative pronoun. When you are talking about people, you use `who'. `Who' can be the subject or object of a non-defining relative clause.
Heath Robinson, who died in 1944, was a graphic artist and cartoonist.
I was in the same group as Janice, who I like a lot.
In formal English, `whom' is sometimes used instead of `who' as the object of a non-defining relative clause.
She was engaged to a sailor, whom she had met at Dartmouth.
3 When you are talking about things, you use `which' as the subject or object of a non-defining relative clause.
I am teaching at the Selly Oak centre, which is just over the road.
He was a man of considerable inherited wealth, which he ultimately spent on his experiments.
WARNING: You do not normally use `that' in non-defining relative clauses.
4 You can also use a non-defining relative clause beginning with `which' to say something about the whole situation described in a main clause.
I never met Brando again, which was a pity.
She was a little tense, which was understandable.
Small computers need only small amounts of power, which means that they will run on small batteries.
5 When you are talking about a group of people or things and then want to say something about only some of them, you can use one of the following expressions:
many of which, many of whom, none of which, none of whom, one of which, one of whom, some of which, some of whom
He talked about several very interesting people, some of whom he was still in contact with.
6 You can use `when' and `where' in non-defining relative clauses after expressions of time or place.
This happened in 1957, when I was still a baby.
She has just come back from a holiday in Crete, where Alex and I went last year.
Unit 94 Participle clauses
Main points
* Nouns are followed by `-ing' clauses that say what a person or thing is doing.
* Nouns are followed by `-ed' clauses that show that a person or thing has been affected or caused by an action.
1 You can often give more information about a noun, or an indefinite pronoun such as `someone' or `something', by adding a clause beginning with an `-ing' form, an `-ed' form, or a `to'-infinitive.
He gestured towards the box lying on the table.
I think the idea suggested by Tim is the best one.
She wanted someone to talk to.
2 You use an `-ing' clause after a noun to say what someone or something is doing or was doing at a particular time.
The young girl sitting opposite him was his daughter.
Most of the people strolling in the park were teenagers.
3 You can also use an `-ing' clause after a noun to say what a person or thing does generally, rather than at a particular time.
Problems facing parents should be discussed.
The men working there were not very friendly.
4 You often use an `-ing' clause after a noun which is the object of a verb of perception, such as `see', `hear', or `feel'.
See also Unit 72.
Suddenly we saw Amy walking down the path.
He heard a distant voice shouting.
I could feel something touching my face and neck , something ice-cold.
5 You use an `-ed' clause after a noun to show that someone or something has been affected or caused by an action.
He was the new minister appointed by the President.
The man injured in the accident was taken to hospital.
Remember that not all verbs have regular `-ed' forms.
A story written by a young girl won the competition.
She was wearing a dress bought in Paris.
Unit 95 Adding to a noun group
Main points
* Some adjectives can be used after nouns.
* You can use relative clauses after nouns.
* Adverbials of place and time can come after nouns.
* A noun can be followed by another noun group.
* You can use `that'-clauses after some nouns.
1 You can use some adjectives after a noun to give more information about it, but the adjectives are usually followed by a prepositional phrase, a `to'-infinitive clause, or an adverbial.
This is a warning to people eager for a quick profit.
These are the weapons likely to be used.
For a list of the facilities available here, ask the secretary.
You must talk to the people concerned.
See Unit 31 for more information on adjectives used after nouns.
2 When you want to give more precise information about the person or thing you are talking about, you can use a defining relative clause after the noun.
The man who had done it was arrested.
There are a lot of things that are wrong.
Nearly all the people I used to know have gone.
Note that you can also use defining relative clauses after indefinite pronouns such as `someone' or `something'.
I'm talking about somebody who is really ill.
See Unit 92 for more information on defining relative clauses.
3 You can use an adverbial of place or time after a noun.
People everywhere are becoming more selfish.
This is a reflection of life today.
4 You can add a second noun group after a noun. The second noun group gives you more precise information about the first noun.
Her mother, a Canadian, died when she was six.
Note that the second noun group is separated by commas from the rest of the clause.
5 Nouns such as `advice', `hope', and `wish', which refer to what someone says or thinks, can be followed by a `that'-clause. Here are some examples:
advice, agreement, belief, claim, conclusion, decision, feeling, hope, promise, threat, warning, wish
It is my firm belief that more women should stand for Parliament.
I had a feeling that no-one thought I was good enough.
Note that all these nouns are related to reporting verbs, which also take a `that'-clause. For example, `information' is related to `inform', and `decision' is related to `decide'.
Some of these nouns can also be followed by a `to'-infinitive clause.
agreement, decision, hope, order, promise, threat, warning, wish
The decision to go had not been an easy one.
I reminded Barnaby of his promise to buy his son a horse.
6 A few other nouns can be followed by a `that'-clause.
advantage, confidence, danger, effect, evidence, fact, idea, impression, news, opinion, possibility, view
He didn't want her to get the idea that he was rich.
I had no evidence that Jed was the killer.
He couldn't believe the news that his house had just burned down.
Note that when a noun group is the object of a verb, it may be followed by different structures.
See Units 69 to 72 for more information.
* Some adjectives can be used after nouns.
* You can use relative clauses after nouns.
* Adverbials of place and time can come after nouns.
* A noun can be followed by another noun group.
* You can use `that'-clauses after some nouns.
1 You can use some adjectives after a noun to give more information about it, but the adjectives are usually followed by a prepositional phrase, a `to'-infinitive clause, or an adverbial.
This is a warning to people eager for a quick profit.
These are the weapons likely to be used.
For a list of the facilities available here, ask the secretary.
You must talk to the people concerned.
See Unit 31 for more information on adjectives used after nouns.
2 When you want to give more precise information about the person or thing you are talking about, you can use a defining relative clause after the noun.
The man who had done it was arrested.
There are a lot of things that are wrong.
Nearly all the people I used to know have gone.
Note that you can also use defining relative clauses after indefinite pronouns such as `someone' or `something'.
I'm talking about somebody who is really ill.
See Unit 92 for more information on defining relative clauses.
3 You can use an adverbial of place or time after a noun.
People everywhere are becoming more selfish.
This is a reflection of life today.
4 You can add a second noun group after a noun. The second noun group gives you more precise information about the first noun.
Her mother, a Canadian, died when she was six.
Note that the second noun group is separated by commas from the rest of the clause.
5 Nouns such as `advice', `hope', and `wish', which refer to what someone says or thinks, can be followed by a `that'-clause. Here are some examples:
advice, agreement, belief, claim, conclusion, decision, feeling, hope, promise, threat, warning, wish
It is my firm belief that more women should stand for Parliament.
I had a feeling that no-one thought I was good enough.
Note that all these nouns are related to reporting verbs, which also take a `that'-clause. For example, `information' is related to `inform', and `decision' is related to `decide'.
Some of these nouns can also be followed by a `to'-infinitive clause.
agreement, decision, hope, order, promise, threat, warning, wish
The decision to go had not been an easy one.
I reminded Barnaby of his promise to buy his son a horse.
6 A few other nouns can be followed by a `that'-clause.
advantage, confidence, danger, effect, evidence, fact, idea, impression, news, opinion, possibility, view
He didn't want her to get the idea that he was rich.
I had no evidence that Jed was the killer.
He couldn't believe the news that his house had just burned down.
Note that when a noun group is the object of a verb, it may be followed by different structures.
See Units 69 to 72 for more information.
Unit 96 Time clauses
Main points
* You use time clauses to say when something happens.
* Time clauses can refer to the past, present, or future.
* Time clauses are introduced by words such as `after', `when', or `while'.
* A time clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. The time clause can come before or after the main clause.
1 You use time clauses to say when something happens. The verb in the time clause can be in a present or a past tense.
I look after the children while she goes to London.
I haven't given him a thing to eat since he arrived.
WARNING: You never use a future tense in a time clause. You use one of the present tenses instead.
Let me stay here till Jeannie comes to bed.
I'll do it when I've finished writing this letter.
2 When you want to say that two events happen at the same time, you use a time clause with `as', `when', or `while'.
We arrived as they were leaving.
Sometimes the two events happen together for a period of time.
She wept bitterly as she told her story.
Sometimes one event interrupts another event.
He was having his dinner when the telephone rang.
John will arrive while we are watching the film.
Note that you often use a continuous tense for the interrupted action. See Unit 60.
3 When you want to say that one event happens before or after another event, you use a time clause with `after', `as soon as', `before', or `when'.
As soon as we get tickets, we'll send them to you.
Can I see you before you go, Helen?
When he had finished reading, he looked up.
Note that you use the past perfect to indicate an event that happened before another event in the past.
4 When you want to mention a situation which started in the past and continued until a later time, you use a time clause with `since' or `ever since'. You use a past simple or a past perfect in the time clause, and a past perfect in the main clause.
He hadn't cried since he was a boy of ten.
Janine had been busy ever since she had heard the news.
I'd wanted to come ever since I was a child.
If the situation started in the past and still continues now, you use a past simple in the time clause, and a present perfect in the main clause.
I've been in politics since I was at university.
Ever since you arrived you've been causing trouble.
Note that after impersonal `it' and a time expression, if the main clause is in the present tense, you use `since' with a past simple.
It is two weeks now since I wrote to you.
If the main clause is in the past tense, you use `since' with a past perfect.
It was nearly seven years since I 'd seen Toby.
For `since' as a preposition, see Unit 40.
5 When you want to talk about when a situation ends, you use a time clause with `till' or `until' and a present or past tense.
We'll support them till they find work.
I stayed there talking to them until I saw Sam.
She waited until he had gone.
6 When you want to say that something happens before or at a particular time, you use a time clause with `by the time' or `by which time'.
By the time I went to bed, I was exhausted.
He came back later, by which time they had gone.
7 In written or formal English, if the subject of the main clause and the time clause are the same, you sometimes omit the subject in the time clause and use a participle as the verb.
I read the book before going to see the film.
The car was stolen while parked in a London street.
* You use time clauses to say when something happens.
* Time clauses can refer to the past, present, or future.
* Time clauses are introduced by words such as `after', `when', or `while'.
* A time clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. The time clause can come before or after the main clause.
1 You use time clauses to say when something happens. The verb in the time clause can be in a present or a past tense.
I look after the children while she goes to London.
I haven't given him a thing to eat since he arrived.
WARNING: You never use a future tense in a time clause. You use one of the present tenses instead.
Let me stay here till Jeannie comes to bed.
I'll do it when I've finished writing this letter.
2 When you want to say that two events happen at the same time, you use a time clause with `as', `when', or `while'.
We arrived as they were leaving.
Sometimes the two events happen together for a period of time.
She wept bitterly as she told her story.
Sometimes one event interrupts another event.
He was having his dinner when the telephone rang.
John will arrive while we are watching the film.
Note that you often use a continuous tense for the interrupted action. See Unit 60.
3 When you want to say that one event happens before or after another event, you use a time clause with `after', `as soon as', `before', or `when'.
As soon as we get tickets, we'll send them to you.
Can I see you before you go, Helen?
When he had finished reading, he looked up.
Note that you use the past perfect to indicate an event that happened before another event in the past.
4 When you want to mention a situation which started in the past and continued until a later time, you use a time clause with `since' or `ever since'. You use a past simple or a past perfect in the time clause, and a past perfect in the main clause.
He hadn't cried since he was a boy of ten.
Janine had been busy ever since she had heard the news.
I'd wanted to come ever since I was a child.
If the situation started in the past and still continues now, you use a past simple in the time clause, and a present perfect in the main clause.
I've been in politics since I was at university.
Ever since you arrived you've been causing trouble.
Note that after impersonal `it' and a time expression, if the main clause is in the present tense, you use `since' with a past simple.
It is two weeks now since I wrote to you.
If the main clause is in the past tense, you use `since' with a past perfect.
It was nearly seven years since I 'd seen Toby.
For `since' as a preposition, see Unit 40.
5 When you want to talk about when a situation ends, you use a time clause with `till' or `until' and a present or past tense.
We'll support them till they find work.
I stayed there talking to them until I saw Sam.
She waited until he had gone.
6 When you want to say that something happens before or at a particular time, you use a time clause with `by the time' or `by which time'.
By the time I went to bed, I was exhausted.
He came back later, by which time they had gone.
7 In written or formal English, if the subject of the main clause and the time clause are the same, you sometimes omit the subject in the time clause and use a participle as the verb.
I read the book before going to see the film.
The car was stolen while parked in a London street.
Unit 97 Purpose and reason clauses
Main points
* Purpose clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as `so', `so as to', `so that', `in order to' or `in order that'.
* Reason clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as `as', `because', or `in case'.
* A purpose or reason clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence.
* A purpose clause usually comes after a main clause. A reason clause can come before or after a main clause.
1 You use a purpose clause when you are saying what someone's intention is when they do something. The most common type of purpose clause is a `to'-infinitive clause.
The children sleep together to keep warm.
They locked the door to stop us from getting in.
Instead of using an ordinary `to'-infinitive, you often use `in order to' or `so as to' with an infinitive.
He was giving up his job in order to stay at home.
I keep the window open, so as to let fresh air in.
To make a purpose clause negative, you have to use `in order not to' or `so as not to' with an infinitive.
I would have to give myself something to do in order not to be bored.
They went on foot, so as not to be heard.
Another way of making purpose clauses negative is by using `to avoid' with an `-ing' form or a noun group.
I had to turn away to avoid letting him see my smile.
They drove through town to avoid the motorway.
2 Another type of purpose clause begins with `in order that', `so', or `so that'. These clauses usually contain a modal.
When the main clause refers to the present, you usually use `can', `may', `will', or `shall' in the purpose clause.
Any holes should be fenced so that people can't fall down them.
I have drawn a diagram so that my explanation will be clearer.
When the main clause refers to the past, you usually use `could', `might', `should', or `would' in the purpose clause.
She said she wanted tea ready at six so she could be out by eight.
Someone lifted Philip onto his shoulder so that he might see the procession.
You use `in order that', `so', and `so that', when the subject of the purpose clause is different from the subject of the main clause. For example, you say `I've underlined it so that it will be easier.' You do not say `I've underlined it to be easier'.
3 You can also talk about the purpose of an action by using a prepositional phrase introduced by `for'.
She went out for a run.
They said they did it for fun.
I usually check, just for safety's sake.
4 You use a reason clause when you want to explain why someone does something or why it happens. When you are simply giving the reason for something, you use `because', `since', or `as'.
I couldn't see Helen's expression, because her head was turned.
Since it was Saturday, he stayed in bed.
As he had been up since 4 am, he was very tired.
You can also use `why' and a reported question to talk about the reason for an action. See Unit 75.
I asked him why he had come.
5 When you are talking about a possible situation which explains the reason why someone does something, you use `in case' or `just in case' .
I've got the key in case we want to go inside.
I am here just in case anything unusual happens.
WARNING: You do not use a future tense after `in case'. You do not say `I'll stay behind in case she'll arrive later'.
* Purpose clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as `so', `so as to', `so that', `in order to' or `in order that'.
* Reason clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as `as', `because', or `in case'.
* A purpose or reason clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence.
* A purpose clause usually comes after a main clause. A reason clause can come before or after a main clause.
1 You use a purpose clause when you are saying what someone's intention is when they do something. The most common type of purpose clause is a `to'-infinitive clause.
The children sleep together to keep warm.
They locked the door to stop us from getting in.
Instead of using an ordinary `to'-infinitive, you often use `in order to' or `so as to' with an infinitive.
He was giving up his job in order to stay at home.
I keep the window open, so as to let fresh air in.
To make a purpose clause negative, you have to use `in order not to' or `so as not to' with an infinitive.
I would have to give myself something to do in order not to be bored.
They went on foot, so as not to be heard.
Another way of making purpose clauses negative is by using `to avoid' with an `-ing' form or a noun group.
I had to turn away to avoid letting him see my smile.
They drove through town to avoid the motorway.
2 Another type of purpose clause begins with `in order that', `so', or `so that'. These clauses usually contain a modal.
When the main clause refers to the present, you usually use `can', `may', `will', or `shall' in the purpose clause.
Any holes should be fenced so that people can't fall down them.
I have drawn a diagram so that my explanation will be clearer.
When the main clause refers to the past, you usually use `could', `might', `should', or `would' in the purpose clause.
She said she wanted tea ready at six so she could be out by eight.
Someone lifted Philip onto his shoulder so that he might see the procession.
You use `in order that', `so', and `so that', when the subject of the purpose clause is different from the subject of the main clause. For example, you say `I've underlined it so that it will be easier.' You do not say `I've underlined it to be easier'.
3 You can also talk about the purpose of an action by using a prepositional phrase introduced by `for'.
She went out for a run.
They said they did it for fun.
I usually check, just for safety's sake.
4 You use a reason clause when you want to explain why someone does something or why it happens. When you are simply giving the reason for something, you use `because', `since', or `as'.
I couldn't see Helen's expression, because her head was turned.
Since it was Saturday, he stayed in bed.
As he had been up since 4 am, he was very tired.
You can also use `why' and a reported question to talk about the reason for an action. See Unit 75.
I asked him why he had come.
5 When you are talking about a possible situation which explains the reason why someone does something, you use `in case' or `just in case' .
I've got the key in case we want to go inside.
I am here just in case anything unusual happens.
WARNING: You do not use a future tense after `in case'. You do not say `I'll stay behind in case she'll arrive later'.
Unit 99 Contrast clauses
Main points
* These are clauses introduced by `although', `in spite of' and `though'.
* You use contrast clauses when you want to make two statements, and one statement makes the other seem surprising.
* Contrast clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as `although', `in spite of', or `though'.
* A contrast clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. The contrast clause can come before or after the main clause.
1 When you simply want to contrast two statements, you use `although', `though' or `even though'.
Although he was late, he stopped to buy a sandwich.
Though he has lived for years in London, he writes in German.
I used to love listening to her, even though I could only understand about half of what she said.
Sometimes you use words like `still', `nevertheless', or `just the same' in the main clause to add emphasis to the contrast.
Although I was shocked, I still couldn't blame him.
Although his company is profitable, it nevertheless needs to face up to some serious problems.
Although she hated them, she agreed to help them just the same.
When the subject of the contrast clause and the main clause are the same, you can often omit the subject and the verb `be' in the contrast clause.
Although poor, we still have our pride. (Although we are poor...)
Though dying of cancer, he painted every day. (Though he was dying of cancer...)
2 Another way of making a contrast is to use `despite' or `in spite of', followed by a noun group.
Despite the difference in their ages they were close friends.
In spite of poor health, my father was always cheerful.
WARNING: You say `in spite of' but `despite' without `of'.
3 You can also use an `-ing' form after `despite' or `in spite of'.
Despite working hard, I failed my exams.
Conservative MPs are against tax rises, in spite of wanting lower inflation.
4 You can also use `despite the fact that' or `in spite of the fact that', followed by a clause.
Despite the fact that it sounds like science fiction, most of it is technically possible at this moment.
They ignored this order, in spite of the fact that they would probably get into trouble.
It is possible to omit `that', especially in spoken English.
He insisted on playing, in spite of the fact he had a bad cold.
* These are clauses introduced by `although', `in spite of' and `though'.
* You use contrast clauses when you want to make two statements, and one statement makes the other seem surprising.
* Contrast clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as `although', `in spite of', or `though'.
* A contrast clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. The contrast clause can come before or after the main clause.
1 When you simply want to contrast two statements, you use `although', `though' or `even though'.
Although he was late, he stopped to buy a sandwich.
Though he has lived for years in London, he writes in German.
I used to love listening to her, even though I could only understand about half of what she said.
Sometimes you use words like `still', `nevertheless', or `just the same' in the main clause to add emphasis to the contrast.
Although I was shocked, I still couldn't blame him.
Although his company is profitable, it nevertheless needs to face up to some serious problems.
Although she hated them, she agreed to help them just the same.
When the subject of the contrast clause and the main clause are the same, you can often omit the subject and the verb `be' in the contrast clause.
Although poor, we still have our pride. (Although we are poor...)
Though dying of cancer, he painted every day. (Though he was dying of cancer...)
2 Another way of making a contrast is to use `despite' or `in spite of', followed by a noun group.
Despite the difference in their ages they were close friends.
In spite of poor health, my father was always cheerful.
WARNING: You say `in spite of' but `despite' without `of'.
3 You can also use an `-ing' form after `despite' or `in spite of'.
Despite working hard, I failed my exams.
Conservative MPs are against tax rises, in spite of wanting lower inflation.
4 You can also use `despite the fact that' or `in spite of the fact that', followed by a clause.
Despite the fact that it sounds like science fiction, most of it is technically possible at this moment.
They ignored this order, in spite of the fact that they would probably get into trouble.
It is possible to omit `that', especially in spoken English.
He insisted on playing, in spite of the fact he had a bad cold.
Unit 100 Manner clauses
Main points
* You use manner clauses to talk about how something is done.
* Manner clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as `as', `as if', `as though', or `like'.
* A manner clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. The manner clause always comes after the main clause.
1 When you want to say how someone does something, or how something is done, you use `as'.
He behaves as he does, because his father was really cruel to him.
The bricks are still made as they were in Roman times.
You often use `just', `exactly', or `precisely' in front of `as' for emphasis.
It swims on the sea floor just as its ancestors did.
I like the freedom to plan my day exactly as I want.
Everything was going precisely as she had planned.
2 When you want to indicate that the information in the manner clause might not be true, or is definitely not true, you use `as if' or `as though'.
Almost as if she'd read his thought, she straightened her back and returned to her seat.
Just act as though everything's normal.
After `as if' or `as though', you often use a past tense even when you are talking about the present, to emphasize that the information in the manner clause is not true. In formal English, you use `were' instead of `was'.
You talk about him as if he were dead.
It is Malcolm's 37th birthday, but he and his mother both behave as if he were 7.
3 You also use `the way (that)', `in a way (that)', or `in the way (that)' to talk about how someone does something, or how something is done.
I was never allowed to sing the way I wanted to.
They did it in a way that I had never seen before.
We make it move in the way that we want it to.
4 You can use `how' in questions and reported questions to talk about the method used to do something, and sometimes to indicate your surprise that it was possible to do it.
`How did he get in?' - `He broke a window.'
I wondered how he could afford a new car.
See also Unit 68 for more information on `..as if..' and `..as though..'
Sometimes, you can use `how' to talk about the manner in which someone does something.
I watched how he did it, then tried to copy him.
Tell me how he reacted when he saw you.
* You use manner clauses to talk about how something is done.
* Manner clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as `as', `as if', `as though', or `like'.
* A manner clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. The manner clause always comes after the main clause.
1 When you want to say how someone does something, or how something is done, you use `as'.
He behaves as he does, because his father was really cruel to him.
The bricks are still made as they were in Roman times.
You often use `just', `exactly', or `precisely' in front of `as' for emphasis.
It swims on the sea floor just as its ancestors did.
I like the freedom to plan my day exactly as I want.
Everything was going precisely as she had planned.
2 When you want to indicate that the information in the manner clause might not be true, or is definitely not true, you use `as if' or `as though'.
Almost as if she'd read his thought, she straightened her back and returned to her seat.
Just act as though everything's normal.
After `as if' or `as though', you often use a past tense even when you are talking about the present, to emphasize that the information in the manner clause is not true. In formal English, you use `were' instead of `was'.
You talk about him as if he were dead.
It is Malcolm's 37th birthday, but he and his mother both behave as if he were 7.
3 You also use `the way (that)', `in a way (that)', or `in the way (that)' to talk about how someone does something, or how something is done.
I was never allowed to sing the way I wanted to.
They did it in a way that I had never seen before.
We make it move in the way that we want it to.
4 You can use `how' in questions and reported questions to talk about the method used to do something, and sometimes to indicate your surprise that it was possible to do it.
`How did he get in?' - `He broke a window.'
I wondered how he could afford a new car.
See also Unit 68 for more information on `..as if..' and `..as though..'
Sometimes, you can use `how' to talk about the manner in which someone does something.
I watched how he did it, then tried to copy him.
Tell me how he reacted when he saw you.
Unit 101 Changing sentence focus
Main points
* You can sometimes change the focus of a sentence by moving part of the sentence to the front.
* You can also change the focus of a sentence by using an expression such as `The fact is', `The thing is', or `The problem is'.
* You can also use impersonal `it' to change the focus of a sentence.
1 In most affirmative clauses, the subject of the verb comes first.
They went to Australia in 1956.
I've no idea who it was.
However, when you want to emphasize another part of the sentence, you can put that part first instead.
In 1956 they went to Australia.
Who it was I've no idea.
2 One common way of giving emphasis is by placing an adverbial at the beginning of the sentence.
At eight o'clock I went down for my breakfast.
For years I'd had to hide what I was thinking.
Note that after adverbials of place and negative adverbials, you normally put the subject after the verb.
She rang the bell for Sylvia. In came a girl she had not seen before.
On no account must they be let in.
After adverbials of place, you can also put the subject before the verb. You must do so, if the subject is a pronoun.
The door opened and in she came.
He'd chosen Japan, so off we went to the Japanese Embassy.
3 When you want to say that you do not know something, you can put a reported question at the beginning of the sentence.
What I'm going to do next I don't quite know.
How he managed I can't imagine.
4 Another way of focusing on information is to use a structure which introduces what you want to say by using `the' and a noun, followed by `is'. The nouns most commonly used in this way are:
answer, conclusion, fact, point, problem, question, rule, solution, thing, trouble, truth
The second part of the sentence is usually a `that'-clause or a `wh'-clause, although it can also be a `to'-infinitive clause or a noun group.
The problem is that she can't cook.
The thing is, how are we going to get her out?
The solution is to adopt the policy which will produce the greatest benefits.
The answer is planning, timing, and, above all, practical experience.
It is also common to use a whole sentence to introduce information in following sentences. See Unit 102 for more information.
5 You can also focus on information by using impersonal `it', followed by `be', a noun group, and a relative clause.
The noun group can be the subject or object of the relative clause.
It was Ted who broke the news to me.
It is usually the other vehicle that suffers most.
It's money that they want.
It was me Dookie wanted.
There are many other ways of focusing on information:
Ted was the one who broke the news to me.
Money is what we want.
What we want is money.
6 You can also focus on the information given in the other parts of a clause, or a whole clause, using impersonal `it'. In this case, the second part of the sentence is a `that'-clause.
It was from Francis that she first heard the news.
It was meeting Peter that really started me off on this new line of work.
Perhaps it's because he's a misfit that I get along with him.
* You can sometimes change the focus of a sentence by moving part of the sentence to the front.
* You can also change the focus of a sentence by using an expression such as `The fact is', `The thing is', or `The problem is'.
* You can also use impersonal `it' to change the focus of a sentence.
1 In most affirmative clauses, the subject of the verb comes first.
They went to Australia in 1956.
I've no idea who it was.
However, when you want to emphasize another part of the sentence, you can put that part first instead.
In 1956 they went to Australia.
Who it was I've no idea.
2 One common way of giving emphasis is by placing an adverbial at the beginning of the sentence.
At eight o'clock I went down for my breakfast.
For years I'd had to hide what I was thinking.
Note that after adverbials of place and negative adverbials, you normally put the subject after the verb.
She rang the bell for Sylvia. In came a girl she had not seen before.
On no account must they be let in.
After adverbials of place, you can also put the subject before the verb. You must do so, if the subject is a pronoun.
The door opened and in she came.
He'd chosen Japan, so off we went to the Japanese Embassy.
3 When you want to say that you do not know something, you can put a reported question at the beginning of the sentence.
What I'm going to do next I don't quite know.
How he managed I can't imagine.
4 Another way of focusing on information is to use a structure which introduces what you want to say by using `the' and a noun, followed by `is'. The nouns most commonly used in this way are:
answer, conclusion, fact, point, problem, question, rule, solution, thing, trouble, truth
The second part of the sentence is usually a `that'-clause or a `wh'-clause, although it can also be a `to'-infinitive clause or a noun group.
The problem is that she can't cook.
The thing is, how are we going to get her out?
The solution is to adopt the policy which will produce the greatest benefits.
The answer is planning, timing, and, above all, practical experience.
It is also common to use a whole sentence to introduce information in following sentences. See Unit 102 for more information.
5 You can also focus on information by using impersonal `it', followed by `be', a noun group, and a relative clause.
The noun group can be the subject or object of the relative clause.
It was Ted who broke the news to me.
It is usually the other vehicle that suffers most.
It's money that they want.
It was me Dookie wanted.
There are many other ways of focusing on information:
Ted was the one who broke the news to me.
Money is what we want.
What we want is money.
6 You can also focus on the information given in the other parts of a clause, or a whole clause, using impersonal `it'. In this case, the second part of the sentence is a `that'-clause.
It was from Francis that she first heard the news.
It was meeting Peter that really started me off on this new line of work.
Perhaps it's because he's a misfit that I get along with him.
Unit 102 Cohesion
Main points
* You can use pronouns and determiners to refer back to something that has already been mentioned.
* You use coordinating conjunctions to link clauses.
1 When you speak or write, you usually need to make some connection with other things that you are saying or writing. The most common way of doing this is by referring back to something that has already been mentioned.
2 One way of referring back to something is to use a personal pronoun such as `she', `it', or `them', or a possessive pronoun such as `mine' or `hers'.
My father is fat. He weighs over fifteen stone.
Mary came in. She was a good-looking woman.
`Have you been to London ?' - `Yes, it was very crowded.'
`Have you heard of David Lodge ?' - `Yes, I've just read a novel of his.'
`Would you mind moving your car , please?' - `It's not mine.'
3 You can also use a specific determiner such as `the' or `his' in front of a noun to refer back to something.
A man and a woman were walking up the hill. The man wore shorts, a T-shirt, and basketball sneakers. The woman wore a print dress.
`Thanks,'said Brody. He put the telephone down, turned out the light in his office, and walked out to his car.
4 The demonstratives `this', `that', `these' and `those' are also used to refer back to a thing or fact that has just been mentioned.
In 1973 he went on a caravan holiday . At the beginning of this holiday he began to experience pain in his chest.
There's a lot of material there. You can use some of that.
5 The following general determiners can also be used to refer back to something:
anothereacheveryother
botheitherneither
Five officials were sacked. Another four were arrested.
There are more than two hundred and fifty species of shark, and every one is different.
6 Another common way of making connections in spoken or written English is by using one of the following coordinating conjunctions:
andnorsoyet
butorthen
Anna had to go into town and she wanted to go to Bride Street.
I asked if I could borrow her bicycle but she refused.
He was only a boy then, yet he was not afraid.
You can use a coordinating conjunction to link clauses that have the same subject. When you link clauses which have the same subject, you do not always need to repeat the subject in the second clause.
She was born in Budapest and raised in Manhattan.
He didn't yell or scream.
When she saw Morris she went pale, then blushed.
7 Most subordinating conjunctions can also be used to link sentences together, rather than to link a subordinate clause with a main clause in the same sentence.
`When will you do it?' - `When I get time.'
`Can I borrow your car?' - `So long as you drive carefully.'
We send that by airmail. Therefore , it's away on Thursday and our client gets it on Monday.
8 When people are speaking or writing, they often use words that refer back to similar words, or words that refer back to a whole sentence or paragraph.
Everything was quiet . Everywhere there was the silence of the winter night.
`What are you going to do?' - `That's a good question.'
* You can use pronouns and determiners to refer back to something that has already been mentioned.
* You use coordinating conjunctions to link clauses.
1 When you speak or write, you usually need to make some connection with other things that you are saying or writing. The most common way of doing this is by referring back to something that has already been mentioned.
2 One way of referring back to something is to use a personal pronoun such as `she', `it', or `them', or a possessive pronoun such as `mine' or `hers'.
My father is fat. He weighs over fifteen stone.
Mary came in. She was a good-looking woman.
`Have you been to London ?' - `Yes, it was very crowded.'
`Have you heard of David Lodge ?' - `Yes, I've just read a novel of his.'
`Would you mind moving your car , please?' - `It's not mine.'
3 You can also use a specific determiner such as `the' or `his' in front of a noun to refer back to something.
A man and a woman were walking up the hill. The man wore shorts, a T-shirt, and basketball sneakers. The woman wore a print dress.
`Thanks,'said Brody. He put the telephone down, turned out the light in his office, and walked out to his car.
4 The demonstratives `this', `that', `these' and `those' are also used to refer back to a thing or fact that has just been mentioned.
In 1973 he went on a caravan holiday . At the beginning of this holiday he began to experience pain in his chest.
There's a lot of material there. You can use some of that.
5 The following general determiners can also be used to refer back to something:
anothereacheveryother
botheitherneither
Five officials were sacked. Another four were arrested.
There are more than two hundred and fifty species of shark, and every one is different.
6 Another common way of making connections in spoken or written English is by using one of the following coordinating conjunctions:
andnorsoyet
butorthen
Anna had to go into town and she wanted to go to Bride Street.
I asked if I could borrow her bicycle but she refused.
He was only a boy then, yet he was not afraid.
You can use a coordinating conjunction to link clauses that have the same subject. When you link clauses which have the same subject, you do not always need to repeat the subject in the second clause.
She was born in Budapest and raised in Manhattan.
He didn't yell or scream.
When she saw Morris she went pale, then blushed.
7 Most subordinating conjunctions can also be used to link sentences together, rather than to link a subordinate clause with a main clause in the same sentence.
`When will you do it?' - `When I get time.'
`Can I borrow your car?' - `So long as you drive carefully.'
We send that by airmail. Therefore , it's away on Thursday and our client gets it on Monday.
8 When people are speaking or writing, they often use words that refer back to similar words, or words that refer back to a whole sentence or paragraph.
Everything was quiet . Everywhere there was the silence of the winter night.
`What are you going to do?' - `That's a good question.'
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